GI-MAP by Diagnostic Solutions

Adenovirus serotypes 40 and 41 cause acute gastroenteritis (inflammation of the stomach and intestines) primarily in children.

Akkermansia muciniphila may represent 3–5% of the microbial composition in the healthy human intestinal tract, and have a crucial role in the regulation of the gut barrier and other homeostatic and metabolic functions.

The distribution of hookworm (Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale) is worldwide, with particular prevalence in rural areas of the moist tropics where there is inadequate sanitation and people walk barefoot. The two species produce indistinguishable thin-walled eggs that hatch in soil. Infection is usually acquired by walking barefoot in soil contaminated with human faeces. The larvae undergo several moults before infective larvae are produced.

Antigliadin antibodies (AGAs) are antibodies of the IgA and IgG classes found in the serum of celiac disease patients. These antibodies mainly target gliadin-derived peptides, which are the main proteins of gluten. AGAs are not specific for celiac disease as they are also found in patients with other gastrointestinal diseases such as gastritis, gastroenteritis, and IBD.

Ascaris lumbricoides, an intestinal roundworm, is one of the most common helminthic human infections worldwide.

Ascaris lumbricoides is the largest intestinal nematode of man. The female worms are larger than the males and can measure 40 cm in length and 6 mm in diameter. They are white or pink and are tapered at both ends. 

Beta-glucuronidase is an enzyme that breaks the tight bond between glucuronic acid and toxins in the intestines. The liver and intestine bind toxins, steroid hormones and some dietary components to glucuronic acid. That is a protective process that limits absorption and enterohepatic reabsorption of toxins, and enhances excretion. A high level of activity of Beta-glucuronidase in the gut is not desirable. A low level of Beta-glucuronidase activity is not known to be of any direct clinical consequence.

Bacillus spp. are spore forming bacteria, ubiquitous in the environment. B. cereus in particular is a frequently recognized cause of toxin-induced acute gastroenteritis.

Other infections caused by this genus include:

- sepsis

- pneumonia

- endocarditis

- central nervous system (CNS) and ocular infections

Gram-negative species of the Bacteroidetes phylum. Immune-modulating normal gut species. Believed to be involved in microbial balance, barrier integrity, and neuroimmune health (Hsiao 2013). High levels may result from reduced digestive capacity or constipation. Low levels may contribute to reduced anti-inflammatory activity in the intestine.

Bacteroidetes are the most prominent gut microbes in much of the world. They are thought to help protect against obesity because they do not digest fat well.

Gram-positive genus in the Actinobacteria phylum. Present in breast milk. Colonizes the human GI tract at birth. Common in probiotics. Thrives on a wide variety of prebiotic fibers.

Blastocystis hominis is found throughout the world in both people with and without symptoms. It is a non-pathogenic parasite. Non-pathogenic parasites are present in the gastrointestinal tract and generally are self-limiting and do not cause illness. However, some research shows an association between non-pathogenic parasites and gastrointestinal symptoms.

C. difficile is an opportunistic anaerobic bacterium which causes symptoms ranging from mild diarrhea to pseudomembranous colitis when the normal flora has been altered (as in antibiotic use).

C. difficile produces two toxins:

- Toxin A is a tissuedamaging enterotoxin,

- while toxin B is referred to as a cytotoxin.

Calprotectin is a calcium-binding protein with antimicrobial properties. It accounts for 60% of neutrophil cytosolic content and is also found in monocytes and macrophages. Calprotectin is released from the intestinal mucosa into the stool in intestinal inflammation. 

When people worry about eating undercooked chicken, they usually focus on getting sick from salmonella bacteria. But another common type of bacteria called campylobacter can also make you ill if you eat poultry that isn’t fully cooked.

Commensal fungi that can be pathogenic to immunocompromised patients. Causes vaginal yeast infections and can be fatal in systemic infections. May cause diarrhea. Has been suggested to cause a cluster of symptoms including GI complaints, fatigue, and muscle or joint pain but evidence is weak.

Commensal fungi that can be pathogenic to immunocompromised patients. Causes vaginal yeast infections and can be fatal in systemic infections. May cause diarrhea. Has been suggested to cause a cluster of symptoms including GI complaints, fatigue, and muscle or joint pain but evidence is weak.

Chilomastix mesnili is a nonpathogenic flagellate that is often described as a commensal organism in the human gastrointestinal tract.

Gram-negative bacteria in the Proteobacteria phylum.

Gram-negative bacteria in the Proteobacteria phylum.

Markers in this class are important producers of short-chain fatty acids, and have many well-documented roles in promoting a healthy intestinal barrier, immune balance, and protection against pathogens.

Cryptosporidium is notorious for being spread by swimming pools. A number of Cryptosporidium outbreaks have occurred after contamination of public swimming facilities. Cryptosporidium can cause gas, bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. In a healthy, immune-competent person, this is a selflimiting infection and can be cleared within 2-3 weeks.

This parasite causes an intestinal infection called cyclosporiasis.

Epidemiology:

- Herpes virus that has infected 60% of the US population

- One in three children have contracted CMV by five years old

- Passed around in child daycare centers

Dientamoeba fragilis is a parasite that lives in the large intestine of people. This protozoan parasite produces trophozoites; cysts have not been identified. The intestinal infection may be either asymptomatic or symptomatic.

Pancreatic elastase is an enzyme that digests protein. It’s only produced by the pancreas and when it is seen in the stool, it’s an excellent biomarker of how well the pancreas is performing.

Entamoeba coli are intestinal amebae that are found in the large intestine. They generally are not considered pathogenic. However, when these amebae are found in stool samples it can indicate the presence of other potentially pathogenic organisms.

Entamoeba histolytica is a disease-causing parasite that can affect anyone, although it is more common in those who lived or travelled in tropical areas with poor sanitary conditions. Diagnosis can be difficult since, under a microscope, it looks similar to other parasites such as Entamoeba dispar and Entamoeba hartmanii. The latter two parasites generally do not cause illness.

Gram-positive genus of lactate-producing bacteria in the Firmicutes phylum. High levels may be due to reduced digestive capacity, constipation or small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Low levels may indicate insufficiency of beneficial bacteria.

Faecalibacterium prausnitzii is one of the most important bacteria in the human gut flora and makes up to 5-10% of the total number of bacteria detected in stool samples from healthy humans. Faecalibacterium prausnitzii has a crucial role in maintaining gut physiology and host wellbeing.

Gram-negative Bacteroidetes and grampositive Firmicutes are bacterial phyla that dominate the entire human digestive tract, including the mouth, nose, throat, and colon.2 An abnormal result in one or both of these phylum suggest imbalanced normal microbes in the GI tract. Further, high Firmicutes and low Bacteroidetes (resulting in a high F/B ratio) suggest microbial imbalance which may be related to increased caloric extraction from food, fat deposition and lipogenesis, impaired insulin sensitivity, and increased inflammation.

An abnormal result in one or both of these phylum suggest imbalanced normal microbes in the GI tract.

Gram-negative Bacteroidetes and grampositive Firmicutes are bacterial phyla that dominate the entire human digestive tract, including the mouth, nose, throat, and colon. 

Autoimmune Association: Systemic sclerosis or inflammatory bowel disease.

Giardia infection (giardiasis) is one of the most common causes of waterborne disease in the United States.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection occurs when H. pylori bacteria infect your stomach. Helicobacter pylori has been evolving with human beings for well over 50,000 years, since they migrated out of Africa. H. pylori colonization has been implicated in a variety of gastroduodenal diseases.

Klebsiella species are gram-negative bacteria normally found in the intestinal tract that are associated with a wide range of small intestinal disorders including:

- alterations of motility,

- diarrhea,

- gas,

- abdominal pain,

- and bloating.

Family of bacteria-like microbes that produce methane. Facilitates carbohydrate fermentation and short-chain fatty acid production by beneficial bacteria. High levels linked to chronic constipation, as well as some types of SIBO and IBS. Low levels may indicate reduced production of short-chain fatty acids and may be associated with inflammation.

Norovirus GI & GII, or Norwalk virus, is the most common cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis in the world. It is widely known for causing the stomach flu on cruise ships. Three genotypes of this diverse virus, GI, GII, and GIV, can infect humans.

The fecal occult blood test (=FOBT) looks for blood in your feces. “Occult” (=hidden) means that the blood amount is so small that it cannot be seen with the naked eye. The bleeding does not change the color of the stool or result in visible bright red blood. Therefore, the blood is found only by testing the stool for blood in the laboratory.

Opportunistic Bacteria associated with Autoimmunity. 

Gram-negative bacteria in the Proteobacteria phylum. High levels may indicate increased intestinal inflammatory activity; May contribute to loose stools or diarrhea; Pets or wild animals can be a source

- Gram-negative bacteria in the Proteobacteria phylum.

- Pseudomonas aeruginosa are normal flora in the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which on occasion cause GI tract infection.

Gram-negative bacteria in the Proteobacteria phylum. High levels may indicate increased intestinal inflammatory activity and may cause abdominal cramping and loose stools. Some strains of P. aeroginosa may produce toxins that can damage cells.

As the most abundant class of antibody found in the human intestinal lumen, secretory IgA (sIgA) is recognized as a first line of defense in protecting the intestinal epithelium from enteric pathogens and toxins. It is used to assess gastrointestinal barrier function.

The steatocrit is a measure of the amount of fat in stool.

Streptococcus is a member of Gram-positive lactic acid-producing bacteria (LAB) that belonged to Firmicutes phylum. Many strains of Streptococcus are non-pathogenic and occur as commensal flora on the skin, the oral cavity, nasopharynx, upper respiratory tract, urogenital, and gastrointestinal tracts.

Zonulin is a protein that opens intercellular tight junctions in the gut lining (the connections between epithelial cells that make up the gastrointestinal lining). Zonulin increases intestinal permeability in the jejunum and ileum and is considered a biomarker for barrier permeability.