When assessing fatty acids in RBCs, Genova measures a weighted percentage of fatty acids taken up into the erythrocyte wall. The total omega-3 percentage is a combined total weight percentage. It is calculated by adding up each of the measured omega-

When assessing fatty acids in RBCs, Genova measures a weighted percentage of fatty acids taken up into the erythrocyte wall. The total omega-6 percentage is a combined total weight percentage calculated by adding together each of the measured omega-6

When assessing fatty acids in RBCs, Genova measures a weighted percentage of fatty acids taken up into the erythrocyte wall. The total omega-9 percentage is a combined total weight percentage calculated by adding up each of the measured omega-9s. In

When assessing fatty acids in RBCs, Genova measures a weighted percentage of fatty acids taken up into the erythrocyte wall. The total saturated fatty acid percentage is a combined total weight percentage calculated by adding up each of the measured

1-methylhistidine is derived from the dipeptide anserine (which consists of the amino acids 1-methylhistidine and beta-alanine). Anserine and its derivatives are associated with the consumption of poultry and fish. Both 1-methylhistidine and 3-methyl

3-Hydroxyisovaleric Acid (3-HIA) is formed from the metabolism of the branched-chain amino acid leucine. Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase catalyzes an essential step in this pathway and is biotin dependent. Reduced activity of this enzyme leads to an a

3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid and 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid are produced by the bacterial fermentation of amino acids, much like Indoleacetic acid (IAA).

3-Hydroxypropionic Acid (3-HPA) is a major urinary metabolite of propionic acid. Propionic acid is derived from dietary branched-chain amino acids, oddchain fatty acids, and can be produced in the gut by bacterial fermentation of fiber. The biotin-de

3-Methyl-4-OH-Phenylglycol (MHPG) is a byproduct of the central nervous system’s norepinephrine (NE) metabolism. MHPG metabolizes to vanilmandelic acid (VMA) in the liver using the enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase. Urina

Both 1-methylhistidine and 3-methylhistidine are histidine metabolites which have been proposed as markers of meat intake. Note that some confusion exists in the literature regarding the numbering of atoms in the imidazole ring of histidine – 1

3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid and 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid are produced by the bacterial fermentation of amino acids, much like Indoleacetic acid (IAA).

5-OH-indoleacetic Acid (5-HIAA) is a downstream metabolite of serotonin, which is formed from the essential amino acid tryptophan. Most blood serotonin and urinary 5-HIAA comes from serotonin formation outside of the CNS, primarily the liver and ente

8-hydroxy- 2’-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) is a byproduct of oxidative damage to guanine bases in DNA. It is used as a biomarker for oxidative stress and carcinogenesis. It has been studied to estimate DNA damage after exposure to carcinogens inc

Alpha-Amino-N-butyric acid (α-ANB), also known as alphaaminobutyric acid, is a nonessential amino acid derived from the catabolism of methionine, threonine, and serine. α-ANB is both formed and metabolized by reactions which require vitam

Alpha-aminoadipic acid (also known as 2-aminoadipic acid) is an intermediary biomarker of lysine and tryptophan metabolism. The further metabolism of alpha-aminoadipic acid to alpha-ketoadipic acid requires vitamin B6. Plasma alpha-aminoadipic aci

α-hydroxybutyric acid (2-hydroxybuturic acid [2-HB]) is a marker that relates to oxidative stress. 2-HB is an organic acid produced from α-ketobutyrate via the enzymes lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) or α-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (

α-Hydroxyisobutyric Acid is a major urinary metabolite of the industrial solvent methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). MTBE was a gasoline additive discontinued in the early 2000’s used to reduce automobile emissions. Due to significant grou

Of the essential amino acids, there are three branchedchain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine). Unlike most amino acids, the initial step of branchedchain amino acid (BCAA) metabolism does not take place in the liver. They increase rapi

α-Ketoadipic Acid (AKAA; 2-Oxoadipic acid, 2-Ketoadipic acid) is an organic acid formed from α-aminoadipic acid (which originates with lysine) and also from α-aminomuconic acid (derived from tryptophan). AKAA metabolizes to form

Isocitric Acid is converted to α-ketoglutaric acid using the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase. Alphaketoglutarate is a rate-determining intermediate in the Citric Acid Cycle and provides an important source of glutamine and glutamate that stimul

Of the essential amino acids, there are three branchedchain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine). Unlike most amino acids, the initial step of branchedchain amino acid (BCAA) metabolism does not take place in the liver. They increase rapi

Of the essential amino acids, there are three branchedchain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine). Unlike most amino acids, the initial step of branchedchain amino acid (BCAA) metabolism does not take place in the liver. They increase rapi

α-Ketophenylacetic Acid, also known as phenylglyoxylic acid (PGA), is a urinary metabolite of styrene, toluene, xylenes, and ethylbenzene. It acts as a urinary marker of recent exposure via inhalation, contact, oral, and others. The biolo

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is an essential n-3 fatty acid and must be obtained in the diet. Sources include green leafy vegetables, oily fish, flaxseed, soybean oil, canola oil, walnuts, and chia seeds. ALA has an 18-carbon backbone with 3 double bon

EPA (n3) and AA (n6) both compete for use of the delta-5- desaturase enzyme to be synthesized. Increased dietary intake of animal fats alters fatty acid metabolism in favor of inflammation. There are many chronic diseases associated with elevations o

Dietary fatty acids are metabolized into fuel sources using beta-oxidation. Fatty acid conversion into Acetyl-CoA requires transport across the mitochondrial membrane via the carnitine shuttle. When beta-oxidation is impaired, fats are metabolized us

Alanine is a nonessential amino acid. It is the second most abundant amino acid in circulation, after glutamine. It is found in many foods including eggs, meat, lentils, and fish. Alanine is involved in sugar metabolism for energy and is important in

SOURCES: Found in virtually all food and food additives, water, air, and soil. Also found in antacids, antiperspirants, cosmetics, astringents, cans, pots, pans, siding, roofing, and foil.

Anserine (beta-alanyl-3-methyl-histidine) is a urinary biomarker from the consumption of poultry and fish. It is a dipeptide consisting of the amino acids 1-methylhistidine and beta-alanine. The enzyme carnosineN-methyl transferase catalyzes the tran

SOURCES: Found naturally in the environment, air, soil, water. Found in lead storage batteries, solder, sheet and pipe metal, pewter, bearings and castings, paints, ceramics, fireworks, plastic enamels, metal and glass. Sometimes used medica

Arachidic acid is very long, 20-carbon backbone saturated fatty acid (20:0). It is found in various nuts, soybeans, peanut oil, corn oil, and cocoa butter. In addition to dietary sources, it can be synthesized by the hydrogenation of the omega-6 fatt

Arachidonic acid (AA) is a 20-carbon polyunsaturated n-6 fatty acid with 4 double bonds (20:4n6). Its double bonds contribute to cell membrane fluidity and predispose it to oxygenation. This can lead to several important metabolites which ensure a pr

Arginine is found in all protein foods and is very abundant in seeds and nuts. It is considered a semi-essential amino acid during early development, infection/inflammation, or renal and/or intestinal impairment.

Sources: Found in water, air, soil, cigarettes, and cosmetics. Food grown in contaminated water sources, such as rice and vegetables, or fish, are a common source. Major sources of occupational exposureis the manufacture of pes

Asparagine is a non-essential protein amino acid that is present in many fruits and vegetables including asparagus, from which it gets its name. Other dietary sources include meat, potatoes, eggs, nuts, and dairy. It can also be formed from aspartic

Aspartic acid is a nonessential amino acid that plays roles in many important metabolic processes, such as energy production (citric acid cycle), hormone metabolism, CNS activation, and the urea cycle. It is found in many protein sources such as oyst

β-alanine is a breakdown product of carnosine and anserine, which are dipeptides from meat consumption. Although β-alanine’s properties are limited, its relationship to carnosine makes it important. Both have antioxidant properties. C

Beta-aminoisobutyric acid (also known as 3-aminoisobutyric acid) is a non-protein amino acid formed by the catabolism of valine and the nucleotide thymine. It is further catabolized to methylmalonic acid semialdehyde and propionyl-CoA. Levels are con

β-hydroxy-β-methylglutaric acid (HMG) is a precursor to cholesterol and coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) synthesis. It is a product of hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMGCoA). HMGCoA- reductase is a rate limiting enzyme in cholesterol production. Med

β-hydroxybutyrate is a ketone body. During periods of fasting, exercise, and metabolic disease, ketone bodies are generated in the liver and become an energy source instead of glucose.

BARIUM SOURCES: Radiologic testing contrast, paint, bricks, ceramics, glass and rubber. Air, water, and food. Fish and aquatic organisms can accumulate barium. BARIUM NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS: Barium toxicity can induce severe hypokalemia.

Behenic acid is a VLSFA which contains 22 carbons (22:0). Its name is derived from Ben oil (behen oil) from the Moringa oleifera tree. Commercially, products containing Moringa oil have high amounts of behenic acid in them such as hair conditioners,

Benzoic acid and hippuric acid are formed from the bacterial metabolism of polyphenols. Urinary benzoic acid may also come from ingestion of food preservatives such as sodium benzoate. Hippuric acid is made when sodium benzoate is conjugated with gly

Used in alloys, electronics, batteries, crystal ware, cosmetics, flame retardants,and in antimicrobial therapy (H. pylori), antiseptic dressings, paraffin paste. Bismuth medical therapies exhibit high therapeutic effects and little side effects, thou

SOURCES: Found in food such as shellfish, leafy vegetables, rice, cereals, cocoa butter, dried seaweed, and legumes. Also present in nickel cadmium batteries, cigarette smoke (including second-hand smoke), insecticides, fertilizer, motor oil, emis

Carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine) is a urinary biomarker which comes from the consumption of beef, pork, and to a lesser extent, poultry. It is a dipeptide consisting of the amino acids histidine and beta-alanine and is concentrated in skeletal

Naturally occurring Cs can be found in a stable form. Radioactive Cs is produced by the fission of uranium in fuel elements, usually near nuclear power plants. These are unstable but eventually become stable through radioactive decay. Some Cs can be

A two-carbon group from Acetyl-CoA is transferred to oxaloacetate to form citric acid. Citric acid is then converted to isocitric acid through a cis-aconitic intermediate using the enzyme aconitase. Aconitase is an iron-sulfate protein that controls

Citramalic acid and tartaric acid are yeast metabolites that are also influenced by dietary intake of fruits, wine, and sugars.

A two-carbon group from Acetyl-CoA is transferred to oxaloacetate to form citric acid. Citric acid is then converted to isocitric acid through a cis-aconitic intermediate using the enzyme aconitase. Aconitase is an iron-sulfate protein that controls

Citrulline is an intermediate, nonprotein-forming amino acid in the urea cycle serving as a precursor to arginine. It derives its name from the watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris), where it was first isolated and identified. It is easily absorbed by the

Sources: Legumes, mushrooms, chocolate, nuts and seeds, shellfish and liver are high in copper all greater than 2.4 µg per gram. Food, water and air (via combustion and fossil fuels and agriculture) are sources of copper. Copper pipes

Urinary creatinine is commonly used as a laboratory standardization when evaluating urinary analytes. Creatinine excretion is influenced by muscle mass and body habitus since creatinine formation occurs in muscle. Dietary intake of proteins contai

A urine creatinine concentration is part of every FMV analysis. All urinary biomarkers are ratioed to the creatinine concentration for standardization. Urinary creatinine is commonly used as a laboratory standardization when evaluating urinary ana

Cystathionine is an intermediate dipeptide within the process of transsulfuration. Transsulfuration is the main route for irreversible homocysteine disposal, glutathione production, and energy. The initial step involves the enzyme cystathionine &beta

Cysteine is a nonessential sulfur-containing amino acid. It is obtained from the diet and is also endogenously made from the intermediate amino acid cystathionine. Dietary cysteine sources include poultry, eggs, beef, and whole grains. This amino

Cystine is formed from the oxidation of cysteine, or from the degradation of glutathione oxidation products. It is two cysteines linked together with a disulfide bond. The urine FMV amino acid test reports cysteine and cystine separately. The plas

D-arabinitol is a sugar alcohol produced specifically by Candida spp. The majority of the published literature shows a correlation between serum or urinary D-arabinitol levels and systemic invasive candidiasis in immunocompromised individuals. Severa

Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) is a 20-carbon omega-6 with 3 double bonds (20:3n6) derived from the essential linolenic acid. LA is metabolized to GLA, which is rapidly elongated to DGLA. There are only trace amounts of DGLA found in organ meats,

Dihydroxyphenylpropionic Acid (DHPPA), also known as 3,4 dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, is a byproduct of the fermentation of dietary phenols by several bacteria, including some Clostridia spp. and others. Although once thought to identify the presen

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 fatty acid with 22 carbons and 6 double bonds (22:6n3). It can be obtained from the diet, supplemented, or created by conversion from DPA using elongase and desaturase enzymes. DHA is present in fatty fish suc

Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) is an omega-3 fatty acid with 22 carbons and five double bonds (22:5n3). It is formed from its precursor, EPA, by way of the elongase enzyme which adds two carbons. It can be supplemented or obtained in the diet from foods

Docosatetraenoic acid (DTA) is a very long chain omega-6 fatty acid with 22 carbons and 4 double bonds (22:4n6). It is synthesized by adding 2 carbons atoms to the backbone of arachidonic acid using the elongase enzyme. It is sometimes referred to

Eicosadienoic acid (EDA) is a rare, omega-6 fatty acid with a 20-carbon backbone and two double bonds (20:2n6). It is mainly formed through the downstream metabolism of omega-6s by elongating LA. EDA can be metabolized to form DGLA and AA. Literature

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is an omega-3 fatty acid with 20 carbons and 5 double bonds (20:5n3). EPA can either be made from the downstream metabolism of ALA or it can be obtained in the diet. Food sources include oily fish such as salmon, macker

Elaidic acid (EA) is an 18-carbon chained fatty acid with one double bond in the trans formation at the 9th carbon (18:1n9t). It is the trans isomer of oleic acid. EA is the principal and most abundant trans fatty acid in the Western diet. It is foun

Ethanolamine is an intermediary metabolite in the serine-to-choline sequence. It can be used to synthesize phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), a very important membrane phospholipid. Ethanolamine is not only a precursor, but also a breakdown product of PE

Formiminoglutamic Acid (FIGlu) is an intermediary organic acid in the conversion of the amino acid histidine to glutamic acid. This enzymatic conversion requires tetrahydrofolic acid.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an amino acid that functions as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It serves one-third of brain neurons and is involved in depression and mania. Although there are some dietary supplement and food sources for GABA (c

γ-linolenic acid (GLA) is an omega-6 fatty acid containing 18 carbons and 3 double bonds (18:3n6). It is synthesized from LA by adding a double bond using the delta-6-desaturase enzyme. This enzymatic reaction is very slow and further impair

Used as a nuclear MRI contrast agent (usually in its chelated form). Also used in magnets, compact discs, superconductors, magnets, and fluorescent materials.Can also be found in ground and drinking water. Gdions in chelates can be exchanged with

Used in integrated circuits, LED’s, solar cells, laser diodes. It is also used in medicine, where the radioisotopes are used as imaging agents,and stable compounds are used in chemotherapy. Ga can be a antimicrobial agent, and used to treat lif

Glutamic acid is a nonessential amino acid is derived from the diet and from the breakdown of gut proteins. Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. It plays a role in neuronal differentiation, migration, and survival in the dev

Glutamine is a nonessential amino acid and is the most abundant amino acid in the body. It is formed from glutamate using the enzyme glutamine synthetase. Approximately 80% of glutamine is found in the skeletal muscle, and this concentration is 30 ti

Glutaric Acid is formed from the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan through the intermediaries of alpha ketoadipic acid and glutaryl-CoA. Glutaryl-CoA is further metabolized to glutaconyl- and crotonyl-CoA by an enzyme called glutaryl-CoA de

Glyceric acid is an organic acid that stems from the catabolism of the amino acid serine. Severe elevations in glyceric acid are an indication of a rare inborn error of metabolism known as glyceric aciduria. One form of glyceric aciduria is the resul

Glycine is a nonessential amino acid that is synthesized from choline, serine, hydroxyproline, and threonine. It has many important physiologic functions. It is one of three amino acids that make up glutathione. Glycine’s dietary sources includ

Glycolic acid is another byproduct of the oxalate pathway and comes from the conversion of glyoxylic acid. Urinary levels of glycolic acid have most commonly been studied in the rare inborn error of metabolism primary hyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1). PH1

Benzoic acid and hippuric acid are formed from the bacterial metabolism of polyphenols. Urinary benzoic acid may also come from ingestion of food preservatives such as sodium benzoate. Hippuric acid is made when sodium benzoate is conjugated with gly

Histidine is a semi-essential amino acid which is formed in the breakdown of carnosine. Red meat is a common source of carnosine, and therefore histadine. Other food sources include poultry, fish, nuts, seeds, and grains. Histidine and histamine have

Homovanillic acid (HVA), or 3-methoxy-4- hydroxyphenylacetic acid, is a metabolite of dopamine. Although dopamine is an important brain neurotransmitter, a substantial amount of dopamine is produced in the GI tract. In neurotransmitter production,

Indoleacetic acid (IAA), or indole-3-acetate, is produced by the bacterial fermentation of the amino acid tryptophan. IAA can be formed from several common gut microbes such as Clostridia species, Escherichia coli, and Saccharomyces species.

A two-carbon group from Acetyl-CoA is transferred to oxaloacetate to form citric acid. Citric acid is then converted to isocitric acid through a cis-aconitic intermediate using the enzyme aconitase. Aconitase is an iron-sulfate protein that controls

Branched Chain Amino Acids (Isoleucine, Leucine, Valine) are the three branched chain amino acids (BCAAs). Branched chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids and must be obtained from the diet (mainly meat, grains, and dairy).

Isovalerylglycine is produced from leucine catabolism. It is further metabolized via isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase. This enzyme requires vitamin B2 as a cofactor.

Because of the specific inflammatory component of quinolinic acid, as well as the potentially protective role of kynurenic acid peripherally, laboratories measure the ratio of kynurenic acid to quinolinic acid. This ratio can act as a measure of dist

Kynurenic acid and Quinolinic acid are tryptophan metabolites formed through the kynurenine pathway. Tryptophan is the amino acid precursor to serotonin; its major route for catabolism is the kynurenine pathway. Important products of the kynurenine p

Lactic Acid and Pyruvic Acid are byproducts of glycolysis. Carbohydrates, which contain glucose, are broken down through glycolysis to form pyruvate and two ATP molecules. Pyruvate can also be generated through the catabolism of various amino acids,

Found naturally in soil. More often found in fossil fuels, gasoline/exhaust, manufacturing, lead-acid batteries, ammunitions, metal solder and pipes, X-ray shields, paint, glass, pigments, and sheet lead.

Branched Chain Amino Acids (Isoleucine, Leucine, Valine) are the three branched chain amino acids (BCAAs). Branched chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids and must be obtained from the diet (mainly meat, grains, and dairy).

Lignoceric acid has 24 carbons and no double bonds (24:0). It can be formed from behenic acid using the elongase enzyme. It is found in peanuts, nut and seed oils. It can also be found in wood tar. Lignoceric acid is one of many fatty acids which com

Linoleic acid (LA) is the only essential omega-6 fatty acid and must be obtained from the diet. From LA, other omega-6s can be created using elongase and desaturase enzymes. LA contains 18 carbons, with 2 double bonds, the first of which is at the

LA/DGLA is a fatty acid ratio. LA/DGLA stands for linolenic acid (=LA) and dihomogammalinolenic acid (=DGLA). The LA/DGLA ratio is a biomarker that can indicate functional zinc deficiency.

Lipid peroxides are a class of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that preferentially oxidize polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) linoleic, arachidonic, and docosahexaenoic acids (omega-6 PUFAs). Lipid peroxides exert their toxic effects via two mechan

Lysine is a nutritionally essential amino acid abundant in meat, fish, fowl, and legumes and is needed for formation of body proteins and enzymes. Lysine can be methylated using S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) to synthesize carnitine, which is needed f

Fumaric acid uses the fumarase enzyme to become malic acid. Malate dehydrogenase catalyzes the conversion of malic acid into oxaloacetate. Two forms of this enzyme exist in eukaryotes. One operates within the mitochondria to contribute to the Citric

Margaric acid is also known as heptadecanoic acid. It is a 17-carbon saturated fatty acid (17:0). Food sources mainly include milk and dairy products, though it can be endogenously made as well. Most research in fatty acid metabolism has focused o

SOURCES: Mercury (Hg) has three forms: Elemental (metallic)- older glass thermometers, fluorescent light bulbs, dental amalgams, folk remedies, combustion, electrical industry (switches, batteries, thermostats), solvents, wood processing Org

Methionine is an essential amino acid that plays an important role in the methylation cycle. Methionine is obtained from dietary intake or through homocysteine remethylation. Methionine’s dietary sources include eggs, fish, meats, Brazil nuts,

Methylmalonic Acid (MMA) is formed from propionylCoA via methylmalonyl-CoA. Major dietary sources of propionyl-CoA include valine, isoleucine, methionine, threonine, and odd chain fatty acids. MethylmalonylCoA is converted to succinyl-CoA to feed the

Sources of Molybdenum: - Beans (lima, white, red, green, pinto, peas), - grains (wheat, oat, rice), - nuts, - vegetables (asparagus, dark leafy, Brassicas), - milk, cheese. Absorption factors: - Molybdenum absorption is passive i

Nervonic acid (NA) is an omega-9 MUFA with a 24-carbon backbone and one double bond (24:1n9). It is a very important fatty acid in the white matter of the brain and is responsible for nerve cell myelin biosynthesis. There are small amounts of NA in c

Used in making metal coins and jewelry, valves and heat exchangers, and stainless steel. Also used for nickel plating, color ceramics, cosmetics, tobacco, and batteries. Can be found in the soil, air, and water. There are also nickel containing foods

Sources: Niobiumis sometimes found in jewelry, and is used with other alloys, like titanium, to make surgical implants and dental applications. It is also a component of superconducting magnets and nuclear reactor cores. Physiologic effects:

Oleic acid (OA) has an 18-carbon backbone with one double bond at the 9th position (18:1n9). Oleic acid’s main dietary source is olive oil, and it is also available as a supplement. OA can also be synthesized in the body by adding a double bond

The omega-3 index is defined as the RBC percentage sum of EPA+DHA, both of which are important antiinflammatory omega-3 fatty acids. This index was first proposed in 2004 as a cardiovascular risk factor by Dr. Willian S. Harris and Dr. Clemons von Sc

There has been a significant change in the balance of Omega-6s to Omega-3s with the evolution of the Western diet. Close to a 1:1 balance existed throughout history. However, rapid dietary changes and food industry advances have altered this to now b

Ornithine is an intermediate nonprotein-forming amino acid of the urea cycle. Arginine is converted to ornithine via the arginase enzyme, with urea as a byproduct. Ornithine combined with carbamoyl phosphate is then converted into citrulline via the

Orotic Acid is an organic acid which serves as an intermediate in nucleotide synthesis and is linked to arginine metabolism as a urea cycle marker for nitrogen balance. It is formed from aspartic acid and carbamoyl phosphate. Carbamoyl phosphate p

Oxalic acid is the metabolic end-product of the glyoxylase pathway and is derived from the oxidation of glyoxylate. In the cell, the majority of glyoxylate is converted into glycine or glycolic acid. However, in some instances there may be greater

Palmitic acid (PA) is a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid (16:0) and the most common fatty acid in the human body. It can be obtained via diet or synthesized from carbohydrates, other fatty acids, and amino acids. As the name suggests, it is a major com

Palmitoleic acid (POA) is a monounsaturated omega-7 fatty acid (16:1n7). The main dietary sources of palmitoleic acid include dairy products, avocado oils, oily fish, and macadamia nuts. Macadamia nuts contain the cis- isomer of POA, while dairy p

Pentadecanoic acid is a 15-carbon saturated fatty acid (15:0) and hence an Odd-Chain Saturated Fatty Acids (OCS-FAs). Its major dietary source is the butterfat in cow’s milk. It can also be synthesized from propionate. Most research

Phenylacetic acid (PAA) is produced by the bacterial metabolism of phenylalanine. Several bacterial strains are known to produce PAA, including Bacteroidetes and Clostridium species. Dietary polyphenols may also contribute to PAA elevation.

Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid found in most foods which contain protein such as meat, fish, lentils, vegetables, and dairy. Phenylalanine is the precursor to another amino acid, tyrosine. Because tyrosine is needed to form several neurotra

Phosphoethanolamine is an intermediate in the serine-to-choline sequence. It is both a precursor and byproduct of phospholipid biosynthesis and breakdown. As a precursor to the phospholipid phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphoethanolamine plays a key ro

Phosphoserine is the phosphorylated ester of the amino acid serine. The addition of a phosphoryl group to an amino acid, or its removal, plays a role in cell signaling and metabolism. Phosphoserine is a byproduct of glycolysis and subsequent intermed

SOURCES: Can be found in soil and river sediments, air, and jewelry. Used as a catalyst in the automotive, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries. It’s resistance to oxidation makes it important in the manufacturing of laboratory equipment.

Proline is a nonessential amino acid. It contains a secondary α-imino group and is sometimes called an α-imino acid. Proline, and its metabolite hydroxyproline, constitute a third of the total amino acids found in collagen. Lysine, prolin

Pyroglutamic acid (5-oxoproline) is produced and utilized in the gamma-glutamyl cycle. This cycle is needed to assist in the production and recycling of glutathione (GSH), a powerful antioxidant. Glutathione is a tripeptide, consisting of glutamat

Lactic Acid and Pyruvic Acid are byproducts of glycolysis. Carbohydrates, which contain glucose, are broken down through glycolysis to form pyruvate and two ATP molecules. Pyruvate can also be generated through the catabolism of various amino acids,

Kynurenic acid and Quinolinic acid are tryptophan metabolites formed through the kynurenine pathway. Tryptophan is the amino acid precursor to serotonin; its major route for catabolism is the kynurenine pathway. Important products of the kynurenine p

SOURCES: Soil, rocks, vegetation, water, contrast agent for PET scans, atomic clocks, photoelectric cells, magnetometers, GPS systems, fireworks. NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS: Rubidium resembles potassium, and these two elements are metabolically i

Sarcosine is an amino acid made within the methylation cycle when S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) is conjugated with glycine. It can also be made by catabolism of dimethylglycine (DMG). There are many dietary sources of sarcosine including eggs, leg

Serine is a nonessential amino acid used in protein biosynthesis and can be derived from four possible sources: dietary intake, degradation of protein and phospholipids, biosynthesis from glycolysis intermediate 3-phosphoglycerate, or from glycine.

Stearic acid (SA) is a saturated fatty acid with an 18-carbon backbone (18:0). Although it is mainly abundant in animal fat, cocoa butter and shea butter are also very high in SA. It is also commonly used in detergents, soaps, cosmetics, shampoos, an

Dietary fatty acids are metabolized into fuel sources using beta-oxidation. Fatty acid conversion into Acetyl-CoA requires transport across the mitochondrial membrane via the carnitine shuttle. When beta-oxidation is impaired, fats are metabolized us

Succinyl CoA becomes succinic acid using succinyl CoA synthetase. This reaction produces NADH which directly provides electrons for the electron transport chain or respiratory chain. Succinic acid requires the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase to become

- Tartaric acid is a compound found in plant foods. It has been identified as a biomarker of grape intake, though it has also been identified in other foods. Tartaric acid levels peak at 4–8 hours after intake. Levels in foods vary significantl

Taurine differs from other amino acids because a sulfur group replaces the carboxyl group of what would be the nonessential amino acid, β-alanine. It takes part in biochemical reactions and is not fully incorporated into proteins. In most tissue

SOURCES: Fish, shellfish, plants, cigarettes, soil, air, water, electronic devices, switches and closures for the semi-conductor industry, glass for medical procedures. NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS: Some of its toxic effects results from interferen

Thorium is a naturally occurring element found at very low levels in the air, food and drinking water. It is not easily taken up by your body. It is unlikely that health effects will occur in the general population. Sources: Rocks, soil, water,

Threonine is a large neutral amino acid and a precursor for the amino acid glycine. Foods that contain relatively high amounts of threonine include cheeses (especially Swiss), meat, fish, poultry, seeds, walnuts, cashews, almonds and peanuts. Threoni

Tricosanoic acid is an 23-carbon, odd-chain saturated fat (23:0) synthesized initially from propionic acid and can be derived in the diet from sesame, sunflower, and hempseed oils. It can furthermore be found in milk and dairy products, as well

Tryptophan is involved in serotonin production via vitamin B6-dependent pathways resulting in the intermediate 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP). 5-HTP is often used as a supplement for serotonin formation instead of tryptophan, which can be quickly met

Tyrosine is a conditionally essential amino acid which can come directly from the digestion of dietary protein. Common food sources include dairy, beans, whole grains, meat, and nuts. If intake is insufficient, tyrosine can be formed from the essenti

Urea is a nontoxic byproduct of nitrogen (ammonia) detoxification. It is formed in the liver via the urea cycle and is the end product of protein metabolism. It is essentially a waste product with no physiological function.

Vaccenic acid (VA) is a monounsaturated omega-7 fatty acid (18:1n7). VA is a naturally occurring trans-fat unlike those produced industrially. The trans-configuration occurs around carbon 11, therefore VA is sometimes denoted as trans11-18:1n7. Ru

Branched Chain Amino Acids (Isoleucine, Leucine, Valine) Isoleucine, leucine and valine are the three branched chain amino acids (BCAAs). Branched chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids and must be obtained from the diet (mainly meat, gra

Sources: Mushrooms, shellfish, black pepper, parsley, dill seed, beer, wine, grains, sweeteners, infant cereals. Fossil fuels, welding, catalysts, steel alloys, batteries, photographic developer, drying agent in paints/varnishes, reducing agent

Vanilmandelic acid (VMA) is formed in the liver by the oxidation of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol. As a downstream metabolite of tyrosine-derived catecholamines, levels of VMA can reflect the overall synthesis and metabolism of catecholamines.

Xanthurenic acid is produced as part of the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan catabolism, along with kynurenic and quinolinic acid.