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Blood Health
Your blood consists of two main components: the cellular components (red blood cells, white blood cells, and the cell fragments known as platelets); and the liquid component, called plasma. Together, these two parts of the blood are responsible for many functions, including oxygen transport, temperature regulation, blood clotting, and immune defense.
Optimal range: 101 - 187 mg/dL
Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a hereditary disorder in which a lack or low level of the enzyme alpha-1 antitrypsin damages the lungs and liver.
Optimal range: 11 - 55 µmol/L
Ammonia is a waste product naturally produced in the body. It primarily comes from the digestion of protein by bacteria in the intestines.
Optimal range: 9 - 67 U/L
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is an enzyme that helps regulate blood pressure.
An increased blood level of ACE is sometimes found in sarcoidosis, a systemic disorder of unknown cause that often affects the lungs but may also affect many other body organs, including the eyes, skin, nerves, liver, and heart.
Optimal range: 0 - 26 U/mL
Beta-2 glycoprotein 1 antibody is an autoantibody that is associated with inappropriate blood clotting. This test detects and measures one class (IgA) of beta-2 glycoprotein 1 antibodies.
Optimal range: 0 - 21 SGU
The assay contributes to the diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). The clinical symptoms of APS alone are not sufficiently specific to make a definitive diagnosis. Laboratory tests thus play an important role in the diagnosis of the disease. In patients with APS, autoantibodies are formed that bind to phospholipids like cardiolipin or to phospholipid-binding proteins like beta-2-glycoprotein.
Detection of these autoantibodies is an integral part of the classification criteria issued by the International Society on Thrombosis and Hemostasis.
Beta-2-glycoprotein I is a 50 KD protein cofactor required by anti-cardiolipin antibodies (ACA) to bind to cardiolipin and other phospholipid molecules.
Optimal range: 0 - 33 SMU
The assay contributes to the diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). The clinical symptoms of APS alone are not sufficiently specific to make a definitive diagnosis. Laboratory tests thus play an important role in the diagnosis of the disease. In patients with APS, autoantibodies are formed that bind to phospholipids like cardiolipin or to phospholipid-binding proteins like beta-2-glycoprotein.
Detection of these autoantibodies is an integral part of the classification criteria issued by the International Society on Thrombosis and Hemostasis.
Beta-2-glycoprotein I is a 50 KD protein cofactor required by anti-cardiolipin antibodies (ACA) to bind to cardiolipin and other phospholipid molecules.
Optimal range: 22 - 29 mmol/L
The bicarbonate content of serum or plasma is a significant indicator of electrolyte dispersion and anion deficit. Together with pH determination, bicarbonate measurements are used in the diagnosis and treatment of numerous potentially serious disorders associated with acid-base imbalance in the respiratory and metabolic systems. Some of these conditions are diarrhea, renal tubular acidosis, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, hyperkalemic acidosis, renal failure, and ketoacidosis.
Optimal range: 0 - 3 mg/L
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a general indicator of inflammation in the body. The inflammation can be acute and caused by infection or injury. Inflammation can also be chronic, which typically points toward more serious diseases. High-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP) tests are commonly ordered to determine your risk of cardiovascular disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.49 mg/L FEU
D-Dimer is a protein fragment (small piece) that's made when a blood clot dissolves in your body.
Optimal range: 2.6 - 18.5 mIU/ml
Erythropoietin, also known as EPO, is a hormone that the kidneys produce to stimulate production and maintenance of crucial red blood cells. The hormone does this in two ways: First, it stimulates bone marrow cells to produce red blood cells. Then, it works to protect the cells from destruction once they are in the body.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.86 ng/mg
F2-Isoprostane, prostaglandin-like compounds formed from the free radical-mediated oxidation of arachidonic acid, are the ‘gold standard’ for measuring oxidative stress in the body.
F2-Isoprostane also have potent biological effects associated with inflammation and therefore may mediate chronic disease initiation and progression.
Additionally, F2-Isoprostane may also act as potent vasoconstrictors via thromboxane formation in the endothelium and promote platelet activation resulting in thrombus formation.
The F2-Isoprostane test may be performed on individuals at risk of future cardiovascular disease due to lifestyle risks, or those with a family history of cardiovascular disease.
Testing of F2 -Isoprostanes is determined by an individual’s medical history, but may be performed semi-annually or annually as necessary. If the initial test result is abnormal, then follow-up testing may be performed within 3-6 months following treatment.
Optimal range: 60 - 177 %
The Factor IX Activity assay is a blood test that measures the activity of factor IX. This is one of the proteins in the body that helps the blood clot.
Optimal range: 51 - 186 %
The factor VII assay is a blood test to measure the activity of factor VII. This is one of the proteins in the body that helps the blood clot.
Optimal range: 56 - 140 %
This test measures the activity of factor VIII, a blood-clotting protein. The test can find out whether you have hemophilia A or another clotting disorder. Because blood-clotting proteins work together to stop bleeding, the test may be done as part of an overall screening for the proteins involved in clotting.
Optimal range: 76 - 183 %
The factor X assay is a blood test to measure the activity of factor X -- one of the substances involved in blood clotting (coagulation).
Optimal range: 60 - 150 %
Optimal range: 30 - 400 µg/dL , 5.37 - 71.60 µmol/L , 30.00 - 400.00 ng/mL , 30.00 - 400.00 ug/L
Ferritin is a protein that serves as a storehouse for iron in the body. When iron supplies dwindle, ferritin releases some into the blood. Therefore, a blood ferritin test is an indication of how much iron is stored in the body. Iron is used primarily by red blood cells to carry oxygen to other cells, and as such Ferritin is vital to blood health.
Optimal range: 13 - 150 ng/mL
Ferritin is a protein that serves as a storehouse for iron in the body.
When iron supplies dwindle, ferritin releases some into the blood. Therefore, a blood ferritin test is an indication of how much iron is stored in the body. Iron is used primarily by red blood cells to carry oxygen to other cells, and as such Ferritin is vital to blood health.
Optimal range: 193 - 507 mg/dL , 1.93 - 5.07 g/L
It’s used to determine the level of fibrinogen in your blood. Fibrinogen, or factor I, is a blood plasma protein that’s made in the liver. Fibrinogen is one of 13 coagulation factors responsible for normal blood clotting.
Optimal range: 149 - 353 mg/dL
Fibrinogen is a soluble protein in the plasma that is broken down to fibrin by the enzyme thrombin to form clots.
Optimal range: 33 - 346 mg/dL , 0.33 - 3.46 g/L
Haptoglobin is a protein that your liver produces. It combines with hemoglobin, which transports oxygen to your organs and tissues via the red blood cells. The haptoglobin test is a test for hemolytic anemia.
Optimal range: 0 - 7.2 %
A useful marker for identifying the cause of thrombocytopenia and predicting platelet recovery.
Optimal range: 27 - 159 µg/dL , 4.83 - 28.46 µmol/L , 27.00 - 159.00 umol/L
Iron - the basics:
- Iron is supplied by the diet.
- As much as 70% of the iron in the body is found in the hemoglobin of the red blood cells (RBCs).
- The other 30% is stored in the form of ferritin and hemosiderin (=iron-storage complex within cells, not widely available).
- About 10% of the ingested iron is absorbed in the small intestine and transported to the plasma.
- Abnormal levels of iron are characteristic of many diseases, including iron-deficiency anemia and hemochromatosis (=Iron overload).
Optimal range: 9 - 30.4 umol/L
Iron is an essential element required for the production of hemoglobin. Without it, red blood cells cannot reproduce in the body. Doctors are also finding a connection of iron to hair regrowth in the body.
Optimal range: 121 - 224 U/L
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme that helps the process of turning sugar into energy for your cells to use. LDH is present in many kinds of organs and tissues throughout the body, including the liver, heart, pancreas, kidneys, skeletal muscles, brain, and blood cells.
Lactate dehydrogenase may be elevated due to liver disease, hypothyroidism, skeletal muscle damage, anemia (hemolytic, pernicious), fractures. May be decreased due to reactive hypoglycemia, insulin resistance, ketosis.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.4 x 10E3/ml
Large unstained cells (LUC) are cells that are activated lymphocytes and peroxidase-negative cells. They are not stem cells, normal lymphocytes (white blood cells) or virocytes. They may indicate viral infections or inflammation.
Optimal range: 0 - 4.5 %
Large unstained cells (LUC) are cells that are activated lymphocytes and peroxidase-negative cells. They are not stem cells, normal lymphocytes (white blood cells) or virocytes. They may indicate viral infections or inflammation.
Optimal range: 4.2 - 6.8 mg/dL , 1.73 - 2.79 mmol/L
Hundreds of enzymatic reactions in the body depend on magnesium for energy production, nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and blood vessel function. A deficiency of this critical element within the cell may be seen with the RBC magnesium test.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.0001 / 100 WBCs
The term 'NRBC' – 'nucleated red blood cells' – refers to precursor cells of the red blood cell lineage which still contain a nucleus.
Optimal range: 0 - 2 nmol/L
Oxidized phospholipids are found on all apoB-containing lipoproteins, namely, LDL, VLDL, and especially Lp(a). When taken up by the artery wall, oxidized lipoproteins accelerate atherosclerosis, thereby, increasing the risk of myocardial infarctions, strokes, and calcific aortic valve stenosis. Oxidized phospholipids are highly pro-inflammatory and contribute to many diseases of aging.
Clinicians can use OxPL-apoB levels to reclassify patients into higher or lower risk categories allowing better personalized care.
Optimal: <2.0 nM/L
Borderline: 2.0-3.0 nM/L
Increased Risk: >3.0 nM/L
Optimal range: 0.22 - 0.24 %
PCT is the volume occupied by platelets in the blood as a percentage and calculated according to the formula PCT = platelet count × MPV / 10,000 (25-27).
Optimal range: 0 - 40 seconds
PTT-LA screen helps to help investigate the cause of a blood clot (thrombotic episode); to evaluate a prolonged partial thromboplastin time (PTT); to help determine the cause of recurrent miscarriages, or as part of an evaluation for antiphospholipid syndrome; the tests are not used to diagnose the chronic autoimmune disorder systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), commonly known as lupus.
Optimal range: 0.6 - 2.6 %
Reticulocytes are newly produced, relatively immature red blood cells (RBCs). A reticulocyte test determines the number and/or percentage of reticulocytes in the blood and is a reflection of recent bone marrow function or activity.
Optimal range: 25000 - 90000 cells/uL
Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. They are also known as immature red blood cells. Reticulocytes are made in the bone marrow and sent into the bloodstream. About two days after they form, they develop into mature red blood cells. These red blood cells move oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body.
Optimal range: 150 - 400 µl
Thrombocytes are one of three types of blood cell found in our bodies. Along with red blood cells and white blood cells, thrombocyte levels are assessed with a comprehensive blood count, which can be done as a part of a general health check up or in response to specific symptoms.
Optimal range: 250 - 450 ug/dL , 44.75 - 80.55 µmol/L , 250.00 - 450.00 umol/L , 250.00 - 450.00 g/L
Total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) is a blood test to see if you have too much or too little iron in the blood. Iron is vital in that it transports oxygen around the body. Frequently, a TIBC is ordered along with several other tests to determine the cause of conditions like anemia or to assess blood health in general.
Optimal range: 200 - 390 mg/dL , 2.00 - 3.90 g/L
Transferrin is the main protein in the blood that binds to iron and transports it throughout the body. A transferrin test directly measures the level in the blood.
Optimal range: 15 - 55 %
Transferrin saturation (TSAT) is the ratio of serum iron and total iron-binding capacity. All three measurements are used to help determine the cause of iron levels that are abnormally high or abnormally low. TS may also be used to identify the presence and type of anemia.
Optimal range: 131 - 425 µg/dL , 23.45 - 76.08 µmol/L , 131.00 - 425.00 umol/L
Unsaturated iron-binding capacity (UIBC) is a blood test to see if you have too much or too little iron in the blood. Iron is vital in that it transports oxygen around the body. Frequently, A UIBC is ordered along with several other tests to determine the cause of conditions like anemia or to assess blood health in general.
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Lipid Panel
Your cardiovascular system is made up of your heart and blood vessels, and is responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body. A healthy cardiovascular system ensures a good balance of nutrients and optimal brain and body function.
Cardiovascular disease refers to several types of conditions affecting the heart and blood vessels, also known as the circulatory system. Some common cardiovascular diseases and conditions include:
Heart disease and stroke are two of the leading causes of death in the United States, major causes of disability and the principal causes of cardiovascular disease death.
Who’s at Risk?
Although cardiovascular disease affects people of all ages, races and backgrounds, there are certain chronic conditions and lifestyle factors that put people at a higher risk. For example: high blood pressure, diabetes and high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL-cholesterol), also known as “bad cholesterol,” are risk factors for cardiovascular disease. In addition, unhealthy behaviors such as tobacco use, a poor diet, physical inactivity, obesity and alcohol abuse can contribute to high blood pressure, heart disease and other vascular conditions. In some cases, people with a family history of cardiovascular disease share common environments and risk factors that increase their likelihood of having a heart attack or stroke. Combine those genetic factors with unhealthy lifestyle choices, and the risk of cardiovascular disease increases even more.
Can It Be Prevented?
There are several things people can do to prevent cardiovascular disease – and it starts with making healthy choices and managing medical conditions. This includes:
It is also important for individuals with existing medical conditions that affect cardiovascular health to manage and treat these conditions with the help of their doctor, nurse or other health care professional. Monitoring cholesterol levels, blood pressure and managing conditions such as diabetes can help lower the risk of heart disease and stroke.
In summary:
Optimal range: 0 - 0.8 Ratio
Studies have shown that the ratio of apolipoprotein A-1:apolipoprotein B may correlate better with increased risk of coronary artery disease (CAD) than total cholesterol, and LDL:HDL ratio.
Optimal range: 0 - 5 ×100%
Optimal range: 0 - 1 times avg.
The CHD Risk is based on the T. Chol/HDL ratio. Other factors affect CHD Risk such as hypertension, smoking, diabetes, severe obesity, and family history of premature CHD.
Optimal range: 6.8 - 29 ug/ml
Glycomark (1,5-anhydroglucitol) indicates poor control of blood glucose spikes; specifically frequent hyperglycemic events over the past two weeks (not evidentfrom HbA1c). Postprandial hyperglycemia is associated with Cardiovascular disease and reduction of hyperglycemic events appear to decrease macro- and microvascular complications in diabetic patients. Low 1,5-AG is also associated with renal damage. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) – estimates the average blood glucose concentration for the life of the red blood cell (120 days).
Optimal range: 39 - 80 mg/dL , 1.01 - 2.07 mmol/L
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) or “good” cholesterol is known to decrease the risk of heart attack and stroke by removing “bad” cholesterol from the blood. It is typically assessed through a lipid profile, which measures “good” cholesterol, “bad” cholesterol, and total cholesterol. A healthcare professional may order a lipid profile when an individual is at an increased risk for heart disease or routinely in healthy adults to monitor cardiovascular health.
HDL-C transports cholesterol from the peripheral tissues and vessel walls to the liver for processing and metabolism into bile salts. Unlike LDL-C, HDL-C is often referred to as “good cholesterol” — it is thought that the process of bringing cholesterol from the peripheral tissue to the liver protects against atherosclerosis.
- Decreased HDL-C levels are considered atherogenic.
- Increased HDL-C levels are considered to protect against atherosclerosis.
Optimal range: 0.5 - 5 Ratio
The ratio of high density lipoprotein cholesterol/triglycerides is a calculated measure.
Optimal: >0.50
Borderline: 0.25–0.50
Increased Risk: <0.25
Optimal range: 0 - 1 mg/L
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a general indicator of inflammation in the body. The inflammation can be acute and caused by infection or injury. Inflammation can also be chronic, which typically points toward more serious diseases. High-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP) tests are commonly ordered to determine your risk of cardiovascular disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 mg/dL
IDL Cholesterol is a plasma lipoprotein. Cholesterol and triglycerides are insoluble in water and therefore these lipids must be transported in association with proteins. Lipoproteins are complex particles with a central core containing cholesterol esters and triglycerides surrounded by free cholesterol, phospholipids, and apolipoproteins, which facilitate lipoprotein formation and function.
Optimal range: 0 - 99.1 mg/dL , 0.00 - 2.57 mmol/L
Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), or “bad” cholesterol, is known to increase risk of heart attack and stroke when levels become elevated in the blood. LDL-C is measured as a part of a lipid profile, which is used to determine your risk for developing cardiovascular disease. LDL-C can usually be controlled through a combination of lifestyle changes.
Optimal range: 0.5 - 3 Ratio
LDL/HDL cholesterol ratio is the ratio of two types of lipids in the blood. LDL stands for low density lipoprotein or “bad cholesterol” and HDL stands for high density lipoprotein or “good cholesterol.”
Optimal range: 1.5 - 3.2 Ratio
The ratio of leptin to adiponectin appears to be a sensitive indicator for a variety of adverse health conditions.
Leptin is a hormone produced by adipocytes to provide a satiety signal to the hypothalamus. Elevated circulating levels of leptin are associated with adipose tissue abundance and a leptin resistance. High levels of this adipokine have pro-inflammatory effects, and leptin accelerates arterial foam cell formation.
Adiponectin improves insulin sensitivity and stimulates glucose uptake and hepatic fatty acid oxidation. Very low levels of this anti-inflammatory adipokine may increase the risk for CVD and some cancers.
Optimal range: 0 - 130 mg/dL , 0.00 - 3.37 mmol/L
Your non-HDL cholesterol result refers to your total cholesterol value minus your HDL cholesterol. Your lipid panel results normally include four numbers:
- low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol;
- high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol;
- triglycerides; and
- total cholesterol.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.55 Ratio
Optimal range: 0 - 60 U/L
Oxidized LDL is LDL cholesterol (the “bad” cholesterol) that has been modified by oxidation. Oxidized LDL triggers inflammation leading to the formation of plaque in the arteries, also known as atherosclerosis. Oxidized LDL may also play a role in increasing the amount of triglycerides the body produces, as well as increasing the amount of fat deposited by the body. In turn, fat tissue can enhance the oxidation of LDL, creating a vicious cycle.
Optimal range: 0 - 224 nmol/min/mL
The PLAC test is used to determine Lp-PLA2 in serum or plasma.
Lp-PLA2 stands for Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2.
The test is used to determine your cardiovascular risk disease, myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke associated with atherosclerosis. In recent years, a number of studies have been published pointing to Lp-PLA2 as a marker for determining cardiovascular risk.
Lp-PLA2 activity is to be used in conjunction with clinical evaluation and a risk assessment as an aid in predicting risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in people with no prior history of cardiovascular events.
Optimal range: 0 - 151 nmol/min/mL
Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2), also known as platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase, is an inflammatory enzyme that circulates bound mainly to low-density lipoproteins and has been found to be localized and enriched in atherosclerotic plaques. In multiple clinical trials, Lp-PLA2 activity has been shown to be an independent predictor of coronary heart disease and stroke in the general population. Measurement of Lp-PLA2 may be used along with traditional cardiovascular risk factor measures for identifying individuals at higher risk of cardiovascular disease events. Clinical management may include beginning or intensifying risk reduction strategies.
Optimal range: 0 - 35 mg/dL
Small dense LDL cholesterol (sdLDL-c) has been established to be highly associated with metabolic disorder.
Small dense LDL cholesterol (sdLDL-c), is a distinct LDL cholesterol subclass, which is associated with raised TG and decreased HDL-c levels in adiposity and diabetes, playing a distinct metabolic role in atherosclerosis.
The results of recent studies demonstrate that LDL fractions have different atherogenicity, with sdLDL being more atherogenic than larger LDL subfractions. sdLDL is characterized by the enhanced ability to penetrate the arterial wall that makes it a potent source of cholesterol for the development of atherosclerotic plaque. Importantly, longer circulation times of sdLDL result in multiple atherogenic modifications of sdLDL particles in plasma, further increasing its atherogenicity. Study of the sdLDL role in the development of atherosclerosis and CVD is hindered by significant variations in LDL fractionation results obtained by different methods.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.34 Ratio
Optimal range: 100 - 199 mg/dL , 2.59 - 5.15 mmol/L
Your total cholesterol score is calculated using the following equation: HDL + LDL + 20 percent of your triglyceride level.
With HDL cholesterol, higher levels are better. Low HDL cholesterol puts you at a higher risk for heart disease. With LDL cholesterol, lower levels are better. High LDL cholesterol puts you at a higher risk for heart disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 5 Ratio
The total cholesterol /HDL ratio is the proportion of one type of cholesterol to all the other cholesterol in the blood. Total cholesterol includes three substances HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
Optimal range: 0 - 149 mg/dL , 0.00 - 1.68 mmol/L
Triglycerides are a type of fat and the primary way our bodies store unused energy. While triglycerides are necessary for a healthy life, excessive amounts can put you at a higher risk for developing cardiovascular disease. Typically, a healthcare professional will look at triglyceride levels along with high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and total cholesterol to determine your risk of heart disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 30 Ratio
This is a ratio calculated by dividing very low density lipoprotein cholesterol by triglycerides.
A high ratio is linked to abnormal lipid metabolism and increased risk of CVD events.
Optimal: <0.20
Borderline: 0.20 – 0.30
Increased Risk: >0.30
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Electrolytes
An electrolyte imbalance can lead to an imbalance in your body’s acid-base status, hydration, or conduction of charges across cells, all of which are essential, especially with increased activity.
Optimal range: 8 - 16 mEq/L
An anion gap refers to the difference of positively and negatively charged molecules in the body. A gap that is unusually high or low frequently indicates a problem with the respiratory system, kidneys, or bones. Anion gap blood tests cover a large range of molecules and are more efficacious when narrowed to a few possibilities.
Optimal range: 4.5 - 5.6 mg/dL , 1.12 - 1.40 mmol/L
Calcium is an important mineral found throughout the body. It is important for bone health, cell communication, blood clotting, muscle contraction, and nerve cell function. Ionized serum calcium is the biologically active form of calcium in the blood.
Optimal range: 8.6 - 10.2 mg/dL , 2.15 - 2.55 mmol/L
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and one of the most important. Our bodies use calcium to build and fix bones and teeth, help nerves work, make muscles contract, aid in blood clotting, and to help our heart beat. That being said, almost all of the calcium in our bodies is stored in the bones (99%). Typically, our bodies carefully regulate the amount of calcium in the bloodstream. When levels are low, our bones release calcium. When levels are too high, our bones absorb the excess calcium or it is excreted through stool and urine. Factors that determine the amount of calcium in your body include: diet, phosphate levels, how much calcium and vitamin D your intestines absorb, and certain hormones (parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and estrogen). It is critical to get the right amount of calcium in your diet because the human body loses calcium everyday. This is particularly true for pregnant women. The process of creating a baby requires a large amount of calcium. Frequently, the needed calcium will be taken from the mother’s bones during fetal development. This can put mothers at an increased risk for conditions like osteoporosis (brittle bones) in their older age.
Optimal range: 20 - 29 mEq/L , 20.00 - 29.00 mmol/L
What is Carbon Dioxide?
Your body produces Carbon Dioxide (CO2) gas as a byproduct. It's carried by the bloodstream to your lungs, primarily in a bicarbonate (HCO3) form, and then exhaled out while breathing. In a healthy individual, the presence of CO2 in the blood stays within a normal range and doesn’t present any problems.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is one of the most important buffer systems in maintaining normal blood and body fluid acid-base balance (pH). Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is an electrolyte, a negatively charged ion used by the body to help maintain the acid-base balance in the body. It also works with other electrolytes (sodium, potassium, and chloride) to maintain electrical neutrality at the cellular level.
In the body (as mentioned above), most of the CO2 is in the form of a substance called bicarbonate (HCO3-). Therefore, the CO2 blood test is really a measure of your blood bicarbonate level.
Optimal range: 96 - 106 mEq/L , 96.00 - 106.00 mmol/L
Chloride is a molecule found in the body and belongs to the electrolyte group, indicating that it possesses an electrical charge. Electrolytes work to maintain the pH of our body fluids, help our cells to keep the amount of fluid inside and outside the cell balanced, and aid in the maintenance of proper blood volume / blood pressure. Tests for chloride, sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate are typically done together as part of an electrolyte panel, a basic metabolic panel, or a comprehensive metabolic panel. A healthcare professional may order an electrolyte panel when symptoms such as prolonged vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, and difficulty breathing are present. An electrolyte panel can also be used to determine the cause of a pH level in the blood that is too acidic or too alkaline. Additionally, electrolyte panels may be done routinely to monitor medications or diseases that are known to cause electrolyte imbalance. Chloride can be measured through blood or urine.
Optimal range: 1.6 - 2.3 mg/dL , 0.66 - 0.95 mmol/L
Along with calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, and chloride, magnesium is one of the six essential minerals required by the human body in significant quantities. Involved in more than 300 enzyme reactions in the body, magnesium is necessary for bone formation, muscle activity, nerve transmission, energy production, and blood pressure regulation. It also plays an important role in blood sugar balance, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Low magnesium status is directly associated with increased risk of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
Optimal range: 275 - 295 mOsm/kg
Osmolality is a measure of the number of dissolved particles in a fluid. The osmolality test reflects the concentration of substances such as sodium, potassium, chloride, glucose, and urea in a sample of blood, urine, or sometimes stool.
Optimal range: 3.5 - 5.2 mmol/L
What is potassium?
Potassium (K+) helps nerves and muscles communicate. It also helps move nutrients into cells and waste products out of cells.
Potassium, an essential nutrient found throughout the body, is necessary for healthy cell activity.
Potassium is also important in how nerves and muscles work.
Potassium is an electrolyte. Electrolytes become ions when they’re in a solution, and they conduct electricity. Our cells and organs require electrolytes to function normally.
Potassium is also considered a mineral. It helps keep the water (the amount of fluid inside and outside the body's cells) and electrolyte balance of the body.
Optimal range: 134 - 144 mmol/L
What is a Sodium test?
This test measures the levels of sodium in your blood and is usually done as part of an electrolyte or basic metabolic panel blood test.
The sodium test may also be ordered separately if you have:
You may also receive this test to monitor medications that affect your sodium levels. These include diuretics and certain hormones.
Elevated or decreased amounts of sodium in your body can have many adverse health effects ranging from as minor as thirst to as serious as a coma in incredibly severe cases. Monitoring the healthy level of this essential mineral is incredibly important to your overall health.
A sodium blood test is used to detect an abnormal sodium level, including low sodium (hyponatremia) and high sodium (hypernatremia). It is often used as part of an electrolyte panel or basic metabolic panel for a routine health exam.
Optimal range: 60 - 130 µg/dL , 9.18 - 19.89 µmol/L
Zinc is a primary nutrient that we need to thrive. It’s used in a variety of functions through the body including wound healing and creation of DNA. In North America, zinc deficiencies are rare and an unusually high level of zinc in the blood usually indicates iron deficiency or lead poisoning.
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Liver Health
Your liver’s main function is to filter blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it throughout the body. A vital organ, your liver is also responsible for detoxifying chemicals, metabolizing drugs, producing proteins, and more. Liver dysfunction can have a negative impact on your immune system and energy levels and can lead to liver disease and cancer.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.01 g/dL
Optimal range: 0 - 20 u
Actin (Smooth Muscle) Antibody (IgG) - Actin is the major antigen to which smooth muscle antibodies react in autoimmune hepatitis.
F-Actin IGG antibodies are found in 52-85% of patients with Autoimmune Hepatitis (AIH) or chronic active hepatitis and in 22% of patients with Primary Biliary Cirrhosis (PBC). Anti-Actin antibodies have been reported in 3-18% of sera from normal healthy controls.
Optimal range: 0 - 32 U/L , 0.00 - 32.00 IU/L
Alanine-aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme produced by the liver and is used to facilitate chemical reactions in the body. A high level of ALT in the blood is typically an indication of liver damage. ALT tests are frequently run along side other tests (such as an alkaline phosphatase test) to determine the source of liver damage.
Alanine-aminotransferase (ALT) is found in highest concentrations in the liver but also in smaller amounts in heart, muscle and kidney. May be elevated due to hepatocellular disease, biliary issues, pancreatitis.
Optimal range: 3.8 - 4.8 g/dL , 38.00 - 48.00 g/L
What is a serum Albumin test?
You need a proper balance of albumin to keep fluid from leaking out of blood vessels (= oncotic pressure). It also carries vital nutrients and hormones. Albumin also gives your body the proteins it needs to keep growing and repairing tissue.
A serum albumin test is a simple blood test that measures the amount of albumin in your blood. Having surgery, getting burned, or having an open wound raises your chances of having a low albumin level.
What Is Albumin?
Albumin is the most common protein found in the blood. It represents half (~50%) of the total protein content (reference range: 3.8 g/dL to 4.8 g/dL) of plasma in healthy human patients.
Albumin is synthesized (= produced) by liver hepatocytes (= the major cells in the liver). Very little albumin is stored in the liver, and most of it gets rapidly excreted into the bloodstream.
Albumin has two main functions:
1. Maintenance (modulation) of appropriate oncotic pressure in the vascular system.
Albumin is responsible for much of the colloidal osmotic pressure of the blood, and hence is a very important factor in regulating the exchange of water between the plasma and the interstitial compartment, which is the space between the cells. Due to the hydrostatic pressure, water is forced through the walls of the capillaries in the tissue space. This flow of water is continuous until the osmotic pull of protein, in this case albumin molecules, causes it to stop. An abnormal deficiency of albumin can lead to water passing from the bloodstream into the tissues (edema).
2. Transporter of endogenous and exogenous (i.e. drugs) ligands.
Albumin serves as a transport protein carrying large organic anions, those such as fatty acids, hormones (cortisol and thyroxine when their specific binding globulins are saturated), bilirubin and many drugs. Severe liver disease can result in hypoalbuminemia (hypo = below, beneath), which leads to fewer available binding sites for exogenous drugs. This results in larger amounts of unbound exogenous drugs, which can lead to increased drug sensitivity. This sensitivity manifests when patients have serum albumin concentrations lower than 2.5 g/dL.
Optimal range: 1.2 - 2.2 Ratio
The major proteins seen in the serum are albumin and globulin-the latter being primarily alpha 1 and alpha 2 globulin, beta globulin and gamma globulin. Albumin accounts for more than 50% of the total serum proteins. The albumin to globulin (A/G) ratio has been used as an index of disease state, however, it is not a specific marker for disease because it does not indicate which specific proteins are altered. The normal A/G ratio is 0.8-2.0. The albumin/globulin ratio is used to try to identify causes of change in total serum protein. It will go out of the normal range if one component increases or decreases relative to the other. Hence it is important to look at changes in the individual components (albumin and globulins) as well as the ratio.
Optimal range: 39 - 117 U/L , 39.00 - 117.00 IU/L
What is Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)?
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme (= enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions) found in the blood that helps break down proteins and that plays a role in numerous processes in the human body. Any abnormalities in blood concentrations (either high or low) may be indicative of diseases ranging from gallstones and thyroid disease to hepatitis and cancer.
ALP is found in all tissues of the body but, not surprisingly, is found in its highest concentration in the liver, bones, kidneys, and intestines as well as the bile ducts (that drain bile from the liver) and gallbladder (that stores bile).
Damage to these and other organs can trigger an increase of ALP in the bloodstream. By contrast, certain diseases or conditions can impair ALP synthesis and lead to a drop in the blood concentration.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.4 g/dL
Protein in the serum is made up of albumin (∼ 60%) and globulin.
Globulins are divided into alpha-1, alpha-2, beta, and gamma globulins.
Optimal range: 0.4 - 1 g/dL
Globulins are divided into alpha-1, alpha-2, beta, and gamma globulins.
Optimal range: 0 - 40 U/L , 0.00 - 40.00 IU/L
Aspartate-aminotransferase (AST) and alanine-aminotransferase (ALT) are both produced by the liver and serve in functions throughout the human body. Aspartate-aminotransferase is most commonly related to liver health. Blood tests for AST and ALT are often ordered together to identify the source of damage in our organs.
AST is an intracellular enzyme that is usually elevated due to active tissue and cellular destruction. May be elevated due to hepatitis, liver cirrhosis or alcoholism, hypothyroidism. May be decreased due to Vit B6 deficiency, elevated serum nitrogen.
Optimal range: 0.7 - 1.3 g/dL
Protein in the serum is made up of albumin (∼60%) and globulin. Together with albumin, globulin forms the total protein level on a blood test lab report. It includes carrier proteins, enzymes, clotting factors, and, predominantly, antibodies.
Globulin is categorized into three main groups:
Optimal range: 0.4 - 0.6 g/dL
There are four main types of globulins. They are called
- alpha 1,
- alpha 2,
- beta,
- and gamma.
Optimal range: 0.2 - 0.5 g/dL
There are four main types of globulins. They are called
- alpha 1,
- alpha 2,
- beta,
- and gamma.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 umol/L
Bile acids are compounds that are made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile acids help with digestion of foods, particularly fat. When food is eaten, the body sends a signal to the gall bladder to contract and push bile acids into the small intestine. The bile acids mix with the food in the intestine and break down large, complex fats into small particles that can be absorbed more easily.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.4 mg/dL , 0.00 - 6.84 µmol/L
Bilirubin is a waste byproduct of the breakdown of red blood cells. Yellow in coloration, bilirubin is filtered out of the blood by the liver and excreted in stool by the intestines. Bilirubin tests are done when a disease or blockage of the liver is suspected. Direct bilirubin differs from indirect bilirubin in that it is bound to a sugar and is therefore water soluble.
Optimal range: 0.2 - 0.9 mg/dL , 3.42 - 15.39 umol/L
The Indirect Bilirubin test measures how much bilirubin is in your blood. It originates from the breakdown of hemoglobin in the red blood cells, but must be removed by your liver.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.2 mg/dL , 0.00 - 20.52 µmol/L
What is Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellowish substance. Bilirubin is made in the body when the hemoglobin protein in old red blood cells is broken down. The breakdown of old cells is a normal, healthy process. Bilirubin is found in bile, a fluid your liver makes that helps you digest food. Bilirubin is stored in the gallbladder and is involved in digesting food. Most bilirubin is eliminated in the feces or urine. Elevated bilirubin levels may indicate certain diseases. It is responsible for the yellow color of bruises and the yellow discoloration in jaundice. Its subsequent breakdown products, such as stercobilin, cause the brown color of feces. A different breakdown product, urobilin, is the main component of the straw-yellow color in urine. If your liver is healthy, it will remove most of the bilirubin from your body. If your liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak out of your liver and into your blood. When too much bilirubin gets into the bloodstream, it can cause jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow. Signs of jaundice, along with a bilirubin blood test, can help your health care provider find out if you have liver disease.
Optimal range: 0.4 - 1.8 g/dL
Gamma globulin is a major class of immunoglobulins found in the blood, including many of the most common antibodies circulating in the blood.
The gamma globulin band consists of 5 immunoglobulins:
Optimal range: 0 - 65 U/L , 0.00 - 65.00 IU/L
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT) is an enzyme most commonly associated with the liver. GGT tests are often run to determine the cause and extent of liver damage or to monitor treatment of alcohol abuse disorders. While an elevated GGT score may be a cause for concern, a normal or low score is generally not.
Optimal range: 1.5 - 4.5 g/dL , 15.00 - 45.00 g/L
What is globulin?
Globulin is a protein and is made in the liver. High levels may indicate autoimmune disease, infections or cancer. A low globulin reading may be a sign of liver or kidney disease.
About 40% of the proteins in your blood are alpha, beta and gamma globulins. Albumin is the other common blood protein.
Globulin forms the main transport system for various substances as well as a constituant of the antibody system (“immunoglobulins”) that fights infections and viruses. Globulins are also needed to form blood clots and keep the liver and kidneys functioning.
The globulin value on the chemistry panel is not measured, but is calculated by the equation: Globulins = Total protein – Albumin.
There are four groups of globulins. Serum protein electrophoresis is the test used to distinguish one from another and establish levels of each within the bloodstream.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 Units
The presence of mitochondrial antibodies can be used in conjunction with clinical findings and other laboratory tests to aid in the diagnosis of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC). PBC is a chronic disease in which the bile ducts in your liver are slowly destroyed.
Optimal range: 18 - 38 mg/dL
The prealbumin screen is a blood test that may be used to see if you are getting enough nutrition in your diet. This may be because you have a chronic condition. Or it may be because you have an infection or inflammation, or you suffered a trauma.
Prealbumin is a protein that is made mainly by your liver. Your body uses it to make other proteins. Prealbumin also carries thyroid hormones in the blood
Optimal range: 14 - 35 mg/dL
Evaluate protein malnutrition, total parenteral nutrition, and liver dysfunction. Values are decreased in inflammatory processes, malignancy, protein malnutrition, and protein wasting diseases of the gut or kidney. Values are increased in Hodgkin's disease.
Optimal range: 6 - 8.5 g/dL , 60.00 - 85.00 g/L
What is the total protein marker?
Total protein is the sum concentration of all individual serum proteins (g/dL). There are many hundreds of different protein species in serum, including straight polypeptides as well as glycosylated and lipid-associated forms.
Since total protein consists mainly of a composite of albumin and globulins, the result is not interpreted in isolation, but rather is interpreted in context of the changes in albumin and globulins (independently and in relation to each other). Albumin generally accounts for about half (~50%) of the total protein concentration in plasma.
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Metabolic Health
Metabolism is your body’s way of chemically processing sugar and fat for use throughout the body as energy. An optimal metabolism supports healthy weight control and energy levels, while a dysfunctional metabolism can lead to undesired fluctuations in weight and fatigue or hyperactivity.
Optimal range: 8.7 - 30.5 nmol/L
Folates function as cofactors in the transfer and utilization of one carbon groups. These reactions are essential for the production of purines and pyrimidines for DNA synthesis. Folates also play a major role in the regeneration of methionine from homocysteine. In pregnancy, poor body stores of folates may lead to neural tube defects, such as spina bifida.
Optimal range: 2.5 - 12.3 ug/ml
The adiponectin blood test determines the levels of adiponectin in blood. It is used to diagnose metabolic disorders such as Type 2 diabetes. Adiponectin is a hormone that is released from fat cells and will help to control the inflammation of tissue. The hormone will also boost insulin sensitivity and increases the breakdown of fatty acid in the liver. This process will, in turn, decrease the manufacturing of glucose by the liver. A low result might suggest Type 2 diabetes mellitus or metabolic syndrome.
Optimal range: 0 - 30 mg/g creat
This test is useful in the management of patients with relatively early diabetes mellitus to assist in avoiding or delaying the onset of diabetic renal disease.
Albumin/Creatinine Ratio is the first method of preference to detect elevated protein. The recommended method to evaluate albuminuria is to measure the Albumin/Creatinine Ratio in a spot urine sample.
Optimal range: 0 - 39 Units
Thyroglobulin antibodies are antibodies that recognize and bind to thyroglobulin, interfering with its function. Thyroglobulin is critical for thyroid hormone production, so thyroglobulin antibodies usually indicate thyroid disease.
Optimal range: 1.1 - 4.4 ng/mL
Other names: insulin C-peptide, connecting peptide insulin, proinsulin C-peptide
C-peptide is a substance made in the pancreas, along with insulin.
What is insulin?
Insulin is a hormone that controls the body's glucose (blood sugar) levels. Glucose is your body's main source of energy. If your body doesn't make the right amount of insulin, it may be a sign of diabetes.
Optimal range: 16 - 31 mg/dL
Ceruloplasmin is a copper-containing enzyme that plays a role in the body's iron metabolism. This test measures the amount of ceruloplasmin in the blood.
Optimal range: 20 - 320 mg/dL
Creatinine is the endproduct of creatine metabolism. Creatine is present primarily in muscle and the amount of creatinine produced is related to total skeletal muscle mass. Daily creatinine production is fairly constant except when there is massive injury to muscle. The kidneys excrete creatinine very efficiently and blood levels and daily urinary excretion of creatinine fluctuates very little in healthy normal people. Since blood and daily urine excretion of creatinine shows minimal fluctuation, creatinine excretion is useful in determining whether 24-hour urine specimens for other analytes (e.g., protein) have been completely and accurately collected.
Optimal range: 12 - 22 pmol/mL
Cyclic AMP (Cyclic adenosine-3′-5′-monophosphate) serves as a 2nd messenger in signal transmission of many hormones, such as adrenaline, ACTH, LH, FSH, glucagon, and calcitonin.
Optimal range: 4 - 22 ng/dL
What is dihydrotestosterone?
Dihydrotestosterone (=DHT) is a hormone that contributes to the development of sexual structures and characteristics in people assigned male at birth. When DHT levels are too high or too low, it can cause different issues depending on your age and stage of sexual development.
Optimal range: 30 - 85 ng/dL
Dihydrotestosterone is a hormone that stimulates the development of male characteristics
Optimal range: 68 - 114 mg/dL
Your estimated Average Glucose (eAG) number is calculated from the result of your A1c test. Like the A1c, the eAG shows what your average blood sugars have been over the previous 2 to 3 months, but instead of a percentage, the eAG is in the same units (mg/dl) as your blood glucose meter.
Optimal range: 0 - 6.6 u
The free androgen index is a measure of the biologically active testosterone in the blood. It is a ratio of the total testosterone to the level of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG).
Optimal range: 35 - 155 pg/mL , 3.50 - 15.50 ng/dL
Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone in humans. A healthcare professional may order a free testosterone blood test if you’re experiencing sexual problems or a secondary condition, like hyperthyroidism, is suspected.
Optimal range: 0 - 4.2 pg/mL
Although Testosterone is generally viewed as a male-only hormone, women’s ovaries also make small amounts of testosterone. It helps many organs and body processes in women. Free testosterone and albumin-bound testosterone are also referred to as bioavailable testosterone. This is the testosterone that is easily used by your body.
Optimal range: 6.6 - 18.1 pg/mL
Although Testosterone is generally viewed as a male-only hormone, women’s ovaries also make small amounts of testosterone. It helps many organs and body processes in women. Free testosterone and albumin-bound testosterone are also referred to as bioavailable testosterone. This is the testosterone that is easily used by your body.
Optimal range: 0.6 - 1.2 ng/dL , 7.72 - 15.45 pmol/L
Thyroxine is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. The term “free thyroxine” means the measured thyroxine that is not bound to proteins in the blood.
Optimal range: 1.2 - 4.9 Units
Free thyroxine index is considered to be a reliable indicator of thyroid status in the presence of abnormalities in plasma protein binding. The free thyroxine index has generally been replaced by Free Thyroxine in the assessment of thyroid function, but is occasionally useful when a free T4 result is suspected of being anomalous.
Optimal range: 0 - 285 umol/L
Fructosamine is found in the plasma of both normal and diabetic individuals. “Fructosamine” is the term used to describe proteins that have been glycated (ie, are derivatives of the nonenzymatic reaction product of glucose and albumin). It has been advocated as an alternative test to hemoglobin A1c for the monitoring of long-term diabetic control. Fructosamine and hemoglobin A1c do not measure exactly the same thing, since fructosamine has a shorter half-life and appears to be more sensitive to short-term variations in glucose levels; however, this is not necessarily a disadvantage. Fructosamine is clearly superior in patients with abnormal hemoglobins because of the interference of abnormal hemoglobins in the anion-exchange chromatography methods for Hb A1c. Published reference interval for apparently healthy subjects between age 20 and 60 is 205−285 μmol/L and in a poorly-controlled diabetic population is 228−563 μmol/L with a mean of 396 μmol/L.
Optimal range: 65 - 99 mg/dL , 3.61 - 5.49 mmol/L
What is Glucose?
A blood sugar test measures the amount of a sugar called glucose in a sample of your blood. Glucose (also known as blood sugar) is a major source of energy for most cells of the body, including brain cells. Glucose is a building block for carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are found in fruit, cereal, bread, pasta, and rice. Carbohydrates are quickly turned into glucose in your body. This can raise your blood glucose level. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells. Elevated fasting blood glucose is often a sign of Type 2 diabetes. Very high glucose levels, whether fasting or not, usually indicate Type 1 diabetes.
Glucose is often part of a regular blood test called the comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP).
Optimal range: 0 - 0.5 nmol/L
Glutamic acid decarboxylase is an enzyme found in brain and pancreas that converts glutamic acid (glutamate) into GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter. The glutamic acid decarboxylase test is a test that looks for antibodies directed against the glutamic acid decarboxylase enzyme.
Optimal range: 0 - 200 umol/L
Glycated Serum Protein (GSP) is the amount of glucose attached to total serum proteins that indicate the average amount of glucose in the blood over the previous two to three weeks.
Glycated Serum Protein (GSP) serves as a 2-3 week indicator of average blood glucose, closing the information gap between daily blood glucose and HbA1c monitoring. Studies have shown that GSP can be reliably used in medical conditions which impact red blood cell life span thus decreasing the accuracy of HbA1c measurements.
Optimal: <200 µmol/L
Borderline: 200-250 µmol/L (may indicate increased risk of diabetes mellitus)
Increased Risk: >250 µmol/L
Optimal range: 4.8 - 5.6 %
Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is the percentage of hemoglobin molecules with attached glucose molecules. HbA1c is an accurate means to estimate the average blood glucose over the preceding 3 months.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 2 Units
HOMA-IR stands for "Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance".
The meaningful part of the acronym is “insulin resistance”. It marks for both the presence and extent of any insulin resistance that you might currently express. It is a terrific way to reveal the dynamic between your baseline (fasting) blood sugar and the responsive hormone insulin.
- Less than 1 means you are insulin-sensitive (Optiomal)
- Greater than 1.9 indicates early insulin resistance.
- Greater than 2.9 indicates significant insulin resistance.
Insulin, a hormone secreted by your pancreas, helps the body use glucose for fuel. When the body becomes insulin resistant, the pancreas will increase its production of insulin to compensate, but increased levels of insulin can damage your overall health and make it very difficult to lose weight.
If insulin resistance is left untreated, it can lead to the development of pre-diabetes, Type 2 diabetes mellitus or other metabolic conditions, like heart disease and fatty liver disease.
Why take the HOMA-IR test?
When insulin resistance is identified early, it can be reversed. Using the HOMA-IR to identify subtle insulin resistance, even before it is evident in more traditional screening measures like hemoglobin HA1c (HA1c) and fasting blood sugar.
The HOMA-IR tool is a validated, non-invasive tool to assess the relationship between glucose and insulin. If elevated, it can guide you to make diet and lifestyle changes that will bring your HOMA-IR score down into the insulin-sensitive range, lose weight, and improve your health.
HOMA-IR and CVD:
HOMA-IR is an independent predictor of CVD in type 2 diabetes. The improvement of insulin resistance might have beneficial effects not only on glucose control but also on CVD in patients with type 2 diabetes.
Optimal range: 50 - 100 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 14.5 µmol/L , 0.00 - 14.50 umol/L
Homocysteine is an amino acid that requires vitamin B12 and folate to be used by our bodies. As such, homocysteine blood tests are often ordered to identify vitamin B12 / folate deficiency.
Rarely, an abnormally high level of homocysteine indicates a rare genetic disorder called homocystinuria.
Optimal range: 2.6 - 24.9 uIU/ml
Insulin is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body, and its primary function is to facilitate the absorption of glucose from the bloodstream into the cells of the body (muscular and fat), as well as the liver.
--------------------
When insulin enters your bloodstream, it helps cells throughout your body to absorb glucose.
Insulin allows your body to:
- Use glucose from the food that you eat for energy; and
- Store glucose for future use.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.4 U/mL
The anti-insulin antibody test checks to see if your body has produced antibodies against insulin.
Antibodies are proteins the body produces to protect itself when it detects anything "foreign," such as a virus or transplanted organ.
Optimal range: 64 - 240 ng/dL
Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) is a hormone that is similar in structure to insulin and works with Growth Hormone to reproduce and regenerate cells.
Growth Hormone, made by the pituitary gland, stimulates the liver to produce IGF-1 and IGF-1 subsequently stimulates growth in cells throughout the body, leading to growth and development (as in the womb and through adolescence), strengthening of tissues (improving bone density, building muscle), and healing (skin, bones, gut lining, etc.), depending on what the body needs.
Optimal range: 40 - 92 mcg/L
Iodine is an essential element that is required for thyroid hormone production.
Optimal range: 15 - 65 pg/mL
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) helps the body maintain stable levels of calcium in the blood. It is part of a feedback loop that includes calcium, PTH, vitamin D, and, to some extent, phosphorus (phosphate) and magnesium. Conditions and diseases that disrupt this feedback loop can cause inappropriate elevations or decreases in calcium and PTH levels and lead to symptoms of hypercalcemia or hypocalcemia.
|
Interpretive Guide |
Intact PTH |
Calcium |
|
Normal Parathyroid |
Normal |
Normal |
|
Hypoparathyroidism |
Low or Low Normal |
Low |
|
Hyperparathyroidism
|
|
|
|
Non-Parathyroid
|
|
|
Optimal range: 22 - 237 ng/dL
Pregnenolone is a chemical substance that is a precursor to all steroid hormones.
Optimal range: 0 - 18.8 pmol/L
Proinsulin is the precursor of insulin and C-peptide. Following synthesis, proinsulin is packaged into secretory granules, where it is processed to C-peptide and insulin by prohormone convertases and carboxypeptidase E.
Only 1% to 3% of proinsulin is secreted intact. However, because proinsulin has a longer half-life than insulin, circulating proinsulin concentrations are in the range of 5% to 30% of circulating insulin concentrations on a molar basis, with the higher relative proportions seen after meals and in patients with insulin resistance or early type 2 diabetes. Proinsulin can bind to the insulin receptor and exhibits 5% to 10% of the metabolic activity of insulin.
Optimal range: 9.2 - 24.1 ng/dL
Reverse T3 is a biologically inactive thyroid hormone; however, it does block the conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3). Higher levels of reverse T3 can decrease the effect of thyroid hormone.
Optimal range: 24.6 - 122 nmol/L
Sex hormone-binding globulin is a protein that binds primarily to testosterone, making it biologically unusable by our bodies. For this reason, an abnormal level of SHBG indicates that too much or too little testosterone is present in the tissues. In men, this can cause sexual issues like erectile dysfunction or infertility. In women, it can cause irregular menstruation or excess facial hair growth. A healthcare professional may order a SHBG test when total testosterone levels do not fit with one or more of the above-mentioned symptoms.
What are normal SHBG levels?
The normal ranges for SHBG concentrations in adults are:
Males: 10 to 57 nanomoles per liter (nmol/L)
Females (nonpregnant): 18 to 144 nmol/L
Men typically have lower SHBG levels than women. However, a man’s SHBG level will usually increase with age as his testosterone levels drop.
Pregnancy usually raises SHBG levels. They typically return to normal after childbirth.
Optimal range: 2 - 4.4 pmol/L
Triiodothyronine or T3 is the most biologically active thyroid hormone in humans. The term “free T3” means the amount of T3 that is not bound to proteins in the blood.
Optimal range: 0.82 - 1.77 ng/dL , 10.55 - 22.78 pmol/L
Thyroxine or T4 is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. The term “free T4” means measured T4 that is not bound to proteins in the blood.
Optimal range: 4.5 - 12 ug/dL , 57.92 - 154.46 nmol/L
Thyroxine (T4) is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. It is sometimes called total thyroxine because it includes both free T4 and T4 bound to proteins.
Optimal range: 1.2 - 4.3 Units
The T7 Index is used to calculate Free T4, one of the two active thyroid hormones in your bloodstream.
Optimal range: 264 - 916 ng/dL , 9.16 - 31.79 nmol/L , 2.64 - 9.16 ng/mL
Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone in humans. Testosterone blood tests can assess testosterone that is bound to a protein, testosterone that is free in the blood, or both. A healthcare professional may order any of these tests if you’re experiencing sexual or hormonal problems.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.7 nmol/L
Testosterone is a male sex hormone or androgen. It is generally low in women and children, but it can be elevated in certain diseases. A certain level of testosterone is important for development and maturation in both genders.
Optimal range: 8 - 48 ng/dL
Testosterone is a male sex hormone produced in a woman’s ovaries in small amounts as well. Combined with estrogen, the female sex hormone, testosterone helps with the growth, maintenance, and repair of a woman’s reproductive tissues, bone mass, and human behaviors.
Optimal range: 0 - 55 ng/mL
Thyroglobulin is the protein precursor of thyroid hormone and is made by normal well differentiated benign thyroid cells or thyroid cancer cells.
Optimal range: 0 - 1 IU/L , 0.00 - 10.00 IU/ml
Thyroglobulin antibodies are antibodies that recognize and bind to thyroglobulin, interfering with its function. Thyroglobulin is critical for thyroid hormone production, so thyroglobulin antibodies usually indicate thyroid disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 34 IU/ml
Thyroid peroxidase (TPO) is an enzyme that is critical for to thyroid hormone synthesis in the thyroid gland. Thyroid peroxidase (TPO) antibodies bind to and block the action of TPO, resulting in decreases in thyroid hormone levels. The presence of TPO antibodies in the blood is abnormal and usually indicates thyroid disease. The thyroid peroxidase (TPO) antibodies test is usually ordered after thyroid abnormalities have been detected with some other type of testing, such as TSH and free T4. It is usually ordered with thyroglobulin antibody testing.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.55 IU/L
The measurement of thyroid stimulating autoantibodies, in conjunction with other clinical and laboratory findings, is used as an aid in the diagnosis of patients suspected of having Graves' disease.
Optimal range: 0.45 - 4.5 mIU/L , 0.45 - 4.50 IU/L
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) is one of the most important hormones currently used to diagnose thyroid abnormalities. This glycoprotein is secreted by the pituitary and stimulates release of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) from the thyroid gland.
TSH release from the pituitary is controlled by thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) stimulation and negative feedback from free T3 and free T4.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.75 IU/L
Optimal range: 14 - 31 ug/ml
Thyroid-binding globulin (TBG) is produced in the liver and is the primary circulating (transport) protein that binds thyroid hormones3,5,3’-triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) and carries them in the bloodstream.
Optimal range: 0 - 6.2 uM
TMAO (trimethylamine-N-oxide) is a metabolite derived from gut bacteria. This test can powerfully predict future risk for heart attack, stroke, and death in people who appear otherwise healthy.
TMAO is a compound produced by the liver after intestinal bacteria digest certain nutrients: L-carnitine (found in red meat) and lecithin (found in egg yolks, meats and full-fat dairy products). Lecithin is also pumped into the intestines as a component of bile, so all individuals, regardless of diet, feed their gut microbes lecithin and have potential for elevated levels of TMAO.
Optimal range: 71 - 180 ng/mL , 7100.00 - 18000.00 ng/dL
Triiodothyronine or T3 is the most biologically active thyroid hormone in humans. It is called total T3 because it includes both free T3 and T3 bound to proteins.
Optimal range: 23.4 - 42.7 %
T3 Uptake - T3 Uptake (T3U) is used with measurement of Thyroxine (T4) to calculate the Free T4 Index. The calculated Free T4 is useful in the assessment of thyroid diseases. Elevations are associated with Hyperthyroidism or Thyroid Hormone Resistance whereas low concentrations are associated with Hypothyroidism.
Optimal range: 2 - 4.4 pg/mL , 1.30 - 2.86 nmol/L
Triiodothyronine (T3) is the most biologically active thyroid hormone in humans. It is sometimes called total triiodothyronine because it includes both free triiodothyronine and triiodothyronine bound to proteins.
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Vitamins & Minerals
Vitamins and minerals are substances obtained from food and supplements needed for normal growth and body processes. Deficiencies in certain vitamins and minerals can interfere with normal body function.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 Units
An antiparietal cell antibody test is a blood test that looks for antibodies against the parietal cells of the stomach. The parietal cells make and release a substance that the body needs to absorb vitamin B12.
Optimal range: 19.9 - 79.3 pg/mL
Calcitriol is the active form of Vitamin D. It is also known as 1,25(OH)2D. Calcitriol has long been known for its important role in regulating body levels of calcium and phosphorus, and in mineralization of bone.
Optimal range: 0.8 - 1.75 ug/ml , 12.59 - 27.54 umol/L
Copper is part of enzymes, which are proteins that help biochemical reactions occur in every cell. Copper is involved in the absorption, storage and metabolism of iron. The symptoms of a copper deficiency are similar to iron deficiency anemia. The liver makes a special protein, ceruloplasm, to transport copper and help convert iron to a form that can be used by other tissues.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.1 AU/mL
Intrinsic factor antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system that are associated with pernicious anemia. This test detects intrinsic factor antibody (IF antibody) circulating in blood.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.01 Units
Intrinsic factor is a protein that is produced by the parietal cells of the stomach. It binds to vitamin B12, thereby allowing absorption of the vitamin by intestinal cells. In pernicious anemia, an autoimmune disorder, autoantibodies are formed against intrinsic factor leading to its deficiency. The lack of intrinsic factor then causes malabsorption of vitamin B12 and subsequent anemia. Autoantibodies can also be formed directly against the parietal cells which similarly leads to inadequate intrinsic factor activity and vitamin B12 deficiency.
Optimal range: 16.6 - 27.7 nmol/L
- Manganese is an important factor in many critical biochemical processes including antioxidant function.
- Manganese is a mineral element that is both nutritionally essential and has the potential to be very toxic. This fact is further complicated by the small range of dosage for clinical benefit and toxicity with serious consequences.
- The principle antioxidant enzyme within our mitochondria (energy) is superoxide dismutase and the enzymes requires manganese for optimal performance.
- Manganese is also required for normal skeletal development and cartilage synthesis.
- Wound healing is also impacted by manganese, as the synthesis of collagen in skin cells is dependent on the presence of adequate manganese.
- Manganese is also important functioning as a co-factor in the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids and cholesterol.
- Manganese is considered anti-osteoporotic and anti-arthritic.
Optimal range: 0 - 378 nmol/L
Methylmalonic acid is a compound that reacts with vitamin B-12 to produce coenzyme A (CoA). When vitamin B-12 deficiencies occur, methylmalonic acid levels increase.
Optimal range: 5.2 - 72.1 ng/mL
Optimal range: 0 - 5 ng/mL
Niacin (nicotinic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin that is also referred to as vitamin B3.
Nicotinamide (nicotinic acid amide) is the derivative of niacin that is incorporated into the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
Optimal range: 2.8 - 4.1 mg/dL , 0.90 - 1.32 mmol/L
Along with calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and chloride, phosphorus is one of the six essential minerals required by the human body in significant quantities.
Phosphorus is a mineral involved in DNA and RNA synthesis, part of ATP, helps activate enzymes. May be elevated due to Vit D toxicity, hypoparathyroidism, kidney dysfunction. May be decreased due to poor absorption, Vit D deficiency, elevated insulin, high carb diets, diarrhea, poor protein digestion.
Optimal range: 18 - 77 ug/dL , 0.64 - 2.75 umol/L
Vitamin A is one of the fat-soluble vitamins required for health. It’s especially important for vision, skin and mucous membranes found surrounding all organs. Vitamin A provides free radical-fighting functions for immunity and for anti-aging.
Optimal range: 66.5 - 200 nmol/L , 22.43 - 67.46 ng/mL
Vitamin B1, also called thiamine, is important for nervous system and muscle function. Thiamine acts as a coenzyme for carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism. It also is essential for the production of hydrochloric acid.
Optimal range: 232 - 1245 pg/mL , 171.22 - 918.81 pmol/L
Vitamin B12 is essential in many basic bodily functions. High levels are not usually cause for concern, but low levels may indicate a medical deficiency or disease. In America, food such as cereal and grains are enriched with many essential vitamins, including vitamin B12. For this reason, dietary deficiency is rare.
Optimal range: 6.2 - 39 nmol/L
Vitamin supplementation within 24 hours prior to blood draw may affect the accuracy of results.
Vitamin B2 is involved in metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and protein. The clinical manifestations of deficiency are non-specific.
Clinical manifestations include mucocutaneous lesions of the mouth and skin, corneal vascularization, anemia, and personality changes.
Optimal range: 137 - 370 ug/L
Optimal range: 0.5 - 8.45 ug/ml
Other names: Niacin / Nicotinamide / Nicotinic Acid
Niacin (nicotinic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin that is also referred to as vitamin B3.
Nicotinamide (nicotinic acid amide) is the derivative of niacin that is incorporated into the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
Optimal range: 3.4 - 65.2 ug/L , 13.76 - 263.81 nmol/L
Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin involved in energy production, synthesis of hemoglobin, serotonin, dopamine, and amino acids, and other enzymatic reactions in the body.
Optimal range: 3 - 20 ng/mL , 6.80 - 45.32 nmol/L
Folate belongs to the B vitamin family and is used for healthy cell development. Folate is water-soluble and is expelled daily in urine. For this reason, it is important that our diets have enough folate in them to make up for the loss. Deficiency can easily be caused by conditions that impair absorption in the digestive tract.
Folate refers to the many forms of vitamin B-9. These include folic acid, dihydrofolate (DHF), tetrahydrofolate (THF), and more. The body uses B vitamins to create new cells.
Folic acid is a synthetic form of folate. Food manufacturers add it to many products because it does not occur naturally. Bread, pasta, rice, and breakfast cereals tend to contain added folic acid.
Optimal range: 0.2 - 2.3 mg/dL
Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that functions in immunity, the synthesis of collagen and neurotransmitters, and protein metabolism. It’s an antioxidant that slows down aging. Deficiency is called scurvy.
Optimal range: 30 - 100 ng/mL , 74.88 - 249.60 nmol/L
What is Vitamin D?
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin in a family of compounds that includes vitamins D1, D2, and D3.
Vitamin D is both a nutrient we eat and a hormone our bodies make. It is a fat-soluble vitamin that has long been known to help the body absorb and retain calcium and phosphorus; both are critical for building bone.
Also, laboratory studies show that vitamin D can:
- reduce cancer cell growth,
- help control infections
- and reduce inflammation.
Many of the body’s organs and tissues have receptors for vitamin D, which suggest important roles beyond bone health, and scientists are actively investigating other possible functions.
Vitamin D helps your body absorb calcium and maintain strong bones throughout your entire life.
Vitamin D must go through several processes in your body before your body can use it. The first transformation occurs in the liver. Here, your body converts vitamin D to a chemical known as 25-hydroxyvitamin D, also called calcidiol.
Optimal range: 7 - 25.1 mg/L
A vitamin E test measures the amount of vitamin E in your blood. Vitamin E (also known as tocopherol or alpha-tocopherol) is a nutrient that is important for many body processes. It helps your nerves and muscles work well, prevents blood clots, and boosts the immune system. Vitamin E is a type of antioxidant, a substance that protects cells from damage.
Optimal range: 130 - 1500 pg/mL
Optimal range: 878 - 1660 ug/dL
Zinc is an essential trace element. Subnormal levels are associated with alcoholic cirrhosis, cystic fibrosis, myocardial infarction, acute and chronic infections. High levels may be due to industrial exposure.
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Muscle Health
Keeping your muscles healthy will help you to be able to walk, run, jump, lift things, play ... Healthy muscles let you move freely and keep your body strong.
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Kidney Health
Your kidneys help maintain blood pressure, keep the blood's acid-base level within a healthy range, and filter the blood so nutrients are absorbed and waste is passed out of the body as urine. Your kidney function reflects how well your kidneys are filtering your blood. Abnormal kidney function could result in the accumulation of waste products in the body, which can cause fatigue, headaches, nausea, and more.
Optimal range: 6 - 24 mg/dL , 2.14 - 8.57 mmol/L
BUN, or blood urea nitrogen, is used predominantly to measure kidney function. BUN reflects the ratio between the production and clearance of urea in the body. Urea is formed almost entirely by the liver from both protein metabolism and protein digestion. The amount of urea excreted as BUN varies with the amount of dietary protein intake.
Increased BUN levels are a sign of kidney dysfunction. An increased BUN level may be due to increased production of urea by the liver or decreased excretion by the kidney. Increased BUN levels are also associated with dehydration and hypochlorhydria.
Decreased BUN levels are associated with malabsorption and a diet low in protein.
Optimal range: 10 - 24 :1 ratio
What is the BUN/Creatinine Ratio?
The Blood urea nitrogen (BUN): Creatinine Ratio [BUN/Creatinine Ratio] is a renal (related to kidneys) function indicator, commonly used to diagnose acute or chronic renal (kidney) disease or damage.
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine are both waste products of normal metabolism in the human body.
BUN represents the amount of nitrogen produced from the metabolism of proteins.
Creatinine is a normal waste product of muscle.
Once a person performs both a BUN and Creatinine test, doctors can use the combined results to find the BUN-to-creatinine ratio. The BUN and creatinine tests alone are excellent methods of testing liver and kidney health, but together, doctors get a much better understanding of your kidney health and can provide a more accurate diagnosis to kidney-related issues.
Most clinicians agree that creatinine is a more specific indicator of glomerular function than BUN. However, the BUN to creatinine ratio may be used as an indirect estimate of renal function.
Note: If results for BUN and Creatinine are both within the normal reference range, the BUN/Creatinine ratio will not be reported (not applicable).
Optimal range: 0.57 - 1 mg/dL , 50.39 - 88.40 µmol/L , 50.39 - 88.40 umol/L
Creatinine is formed by the breakdown of creatine, a key molecule in muscular metabolism. Our kidneys are responsible for removing creatinine from the blood and expelling it in urine. Therefore, blood creatinine levels are a good indicator of how well the kidneys are working. A disorder of the kidney and/or urinary tract will reduce the excretion of creatinine and thus raise blood serum levels. Creatinine is traditionally used with BUN to assess for impaired renal function.
- Increased creatinine levels are associated with kidney dysfunction, kidney disease and a possible dysfunction in the prostate.
- Decreased creatinine levels are associated with muscle atrophy due to creatinine’s connection to muscle metabolism.
Optimal range: 0.52 - 1.27 mg/L
Cystatin C is a relatively small protein that is produced throughout the body by all cells that contain a nucleus and is found in a variety of body fluids, including the blood. It is produced, filtered from the blood by the kidneys, and broken down at a constant rate.
Optimal range: 60 - 150 mL/min per 1.73 m2
eGFR stands for estimated glomerular filtration rate. Your eGFR score is a reflection of your blood test for creatinine, a waste product formed in muscular metabolism. It estimates how well your kidneys are working.
Optimal range: 60 - 150 mL/min per 1.73 m2
Alternative Names: GFR; Estimated GFR; eGFR
What is GFR?
GFR is a blood test that measures how much blood your kidneys filter each minute, which is known as your glomerular filtration rate (GFR). You have two kidneys. Their main job is to filter wastes and extra water out of your blood to make urine. eGFR is a measure of how well your kidneys are working. Measuring serum creatinine along with an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is recommended as the first step in GFR evaluation by current clinical practice guidelines. Your eGFR is an estimated number based on a blood test and your age, sex, body type and race. eGFR is considered a mostly reliable test for doctors to know how well your kidneys are working. However, the eGFR may not be accurate if you are younger than 18, pregnant, very overweight or very muscular. In addition, other tests such as an ultrasound or a kidney biopsy may be ordered to find a cause of your kidney disease.
Optimal range: 9 - 23 Ratio
Optimal range: 3.8 - 8.4 mg/dL , 226.02 - 499.63 µmol/L , 0.23 - 0.50 mmol/L
Uric acid is a natural byproduct formed during the breakdown of our body’s cells and the food that we eat. Excess uric acid can be caused by either an overproduction of uric acid or inefficient removal of it from the blood. The most common affliction associated with excess uric acid is gout, a painful form of arthritis.
May indicate oxidative stress and elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular disease and diabetes. May be elevated due to gout, kidney dysfunction, excess alcohol intake, starvation, extreme calorie restriction, liver dysfunction, hemolytic anemia, excess fructose consumption, fungal infection, ketogenic diet, supplemental niacin, high protein diet, prolonged fasting, supplemental vitamin B3, excess acidity. May be decreased due to nutrient deficiencies (molybdenum, zinc, iron), oxidative stress, low purine intake (vegetarian or vegan), excess alkalinity.
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White Blood Cell Differential Test
The White Blood Differential Test measures the percentage (and absolute values) of each type of white blood cell (WBC) that you have in your blood.
Five different types of white blood cells, also called leukocytes, normally appear in the blood:
- Neutrophils
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
The test shows if the number of cells are in proper proportion with one another, and if there is more or less of one cell type.
What do abnormal results mean?
Any infection or acute stress increases your number of white blood cells. High white blood cell counts may be due to inflammation, an immune response, or blood diseases such as leukemia. It is important to realize that an abnormal increase in one type of white blood cell can cause a decrease in the percentage of other types of white blood cells.
Although your white blood cells account for only about 1 percent of your blood, their impact is significant. White blood cells are essential for good health and protection against illness and disease. Think of white blood cells as your immunity cells. In a sense, they are continually at war. They flow through your bloodstream to battle viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders that threaten your health. When your body is in distress and a particular area is under attack, white blood cells rush in to help destroy the harmful substance and prevent illness. White blood cells are produced inside the bone marrow and stored in your blood and lymphatic tissues. Because some white blood cells have a short lifespan of one to three days, your bone marrow is constantly producing them.
Optimal range: 0 - 1 %
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell (leukocyte) involved in the immune response. Atypical lymphocytes are generally lymphocytes that have been activated to respond to a viral infection or sometimes a bacterial or parasitic infection.
A few atypical lymphocytes are probably of little clinical significance. A large number of atypical lymphocytes are often found in viral infections like mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus infections and hepatitis B. Toxoplasmosis, certain bacterial infections, medications, stress and autoimmune diseases can also be accompanied by a larger number of atypical lymphocytes.
Atypical lymphocytes can also be observed in patients with several viral infections, such as Epstein-Barr virus infection, cytomegalovirus infection, rubella, Hantavirus infection, viral hepatitis and HIV infection.
Several studies have shown that atypical lymphocytes have also been found in the peripheral blood and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples of COVID-19 patients. It may reflect the disease pathophysiology and provide important information about the diagnosis or prognosis of the disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 6 %
Band neutrophils are the immature form of a white blood cell found in our bodies. All white blood cells act as a defense mechanism against stress and infection. An unusually high level of band neutrophils typically indicates the presence of a bacterial infection or inflammation of tissue.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.2 x10E3/uL , 0.00 - 200.00 cells/uL
What are Basophils?
Basophils are a type of white blood cell. Basophils work closely with your immune system to defend your body from allergens, pathogens and parasites.
Basophils have a short life span, usually only one or two days.
Basophils are mononuclear cells, so they have one round nucleus. Basophils are also granulocytes, or white blood cells that have granules, or small particles, attached to them. These small particles are filled with enzymes, like histamine, that are released during allergic reactions. Basophils are the only white blood cells circulating around your body that contain histamine. During an allergic reaction, histamine is responsible for many of the typical symptoms of allergies, like a runny nose or sneezing.
Histamine is a vasodilator. This means it widens the blood vessels near an infection to open and allow more blood flow to the site of the infection. Heparin is a naturally occurring blood thinning substance which prevents clotting.
Basophils are responsible for the body’s immune response during allergic reactions. When the body is exposed to an allergen, basophils release histamine which triggers the physical symptoms of an allergic reaction. This causes the typical allergic reaction of running nose, watering eyes etc.
They also help to produce a crucial antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE). Immunoglobulin attaches to basophils and a similar type of cell called mast cells. The cells then work together to release histamine and serotonin, which affects the inflammatory response to the allergen.
Optimal range: 0 - 1 %
What are Basophils?
Basophils are a type of white blood cell. Basophils work closely with your immune system to defend your body from allergens, pathogens and parasites.
Basophils have a short life span, usually only one or two days.
Basophils are mononuclear cells, so they have one round nucleus. Basophils are also granulocytes, or white blood cells that have granules, or small particles, attached to them. These small particles are filled with enzymes, like histamine, that are released during allergic reactions. Basophils are the only white blood cells circulating around your body that contain histamine. During an allergic reaction, histamine is responsible for many of the typical symptoms of allergies, like a runny nose or sneezing.
Histamine is a vasodilator. This means it widens the blood vessels near an infection to open and allow more blood flow to the site of the infection. Heparin is a naturally occurring blood thinning substance which prevents clotting.
Basophils are responsible for the body’s immune response during allergic reactions. When the body is exposed to an allergen, basophils release histamine which triggers the physical symptoms of an allergic reaction. This causes the typical allergic reaction of running nose, watering eyes etc.
They also help to produce a crucial antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE). Immunoglobulin attaches to basophils and a similar type of cell called mast cells. The cells then work together to release histamine and serotonin, which affects the inflammatory response to the allergen.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.4 x10E3/uL , 0.00 - 400.00 cells/mcL
What are Eosinophils?
Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell (leukocytes) that protect your body from parasites, allergens, foreign bacteria and outside organisms. Eosinophils are larger than most cells and make up less than 5% of all white blood cells in your body. An increased number of eosinophils may mean your body is fighting an infection or allergic reaction. Very high numbers may indicate a serious health condition.
Eosinophils have a role in defending your body from:
- fungal infections
- bacterial infections
- viral infections
- parasites, such as worms
In the immune system, eosinophils destroy invading germs like viruses, bacteria, or parasites, such as hookworms. They also have a role in the inflammatory response, especially if an allergy is involved. Eosinophils significantly contribute to inflammation related to allergies, eczema, and asthma. Inflammation helps isolate and control the immune response at an infection site but causes a side effect of tissue damage around it. Allergies are immune responses that often involve chronic inflammation.
Optimal range: 0 - 6 %
What are Eosinophils?
Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell (leukocytes) that protect your body from parasites, allergens, foreign bacteria and outside organisms. Eosinophils are larger than most cells and make up less than 5% of all white blood cells in your body. An increased number of eosinophils may mean your body is fighting an infection or allergic reaction. Very high numbers may indicate a serious health condition.
Eosinophils have a role in defending your body from:
- fungal infections
- bacterial infections
- viral infections
- parasites, such as worms
In the immune system, eosinophils destroy invading germs like viruses, bacteria, or parasites, such as hookworms. They also have a role in the inflammatory response, especially if an allergy is involved. Eosinophils significantly contribute to inflammation related to allergies, eczema, and asthma. Inflammation helps isolate and control the immune response at an infection site but causes a side effect of tissue damage around it. Allergies are immune responses that often involve chronic inflammation.
Optimal range: 0.7 - 3.1 x10E3/uL , 700.00 - 3100.00 cells/uL
What are Lymphocytes and what do they do?
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. They play an important role in your immune system, which helps your body fight disease and infection. Your immune system is made up of an intricate web of immune cells, lymph nodes, lymph tissue and lymphatic organs. Lymphocytes are a type of immune cell.
There are two main types of lymphocytes:
T lymphocytes (T cells): T cells control your body’s immune system response and directly attack and kill infected cells and tumor cells.
B lymphocytes (B cells): B cells make antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that target viruses, bacteria and other foreign invaders.
There is also another type of lymphocyte called natural killer cells. These natural killer cells are able to destroy tumor cells without any prior activation. This is unlike the T cells which need to be activated by another immune cell.
Lymphocytes are able to remember antigens, which are foreign substances that provoke your body’s immune reaction. These include bacteria, viruses, and toxins. After an encounter with an antigen, some lymphocytes develop into memory cells. When these memory lymphocytes meet an antigen for a second time, they respond rapidly and specifically to this antigen. This is why vaccines can prevent certain disorders.
Lymphocytes survey the body’s environment, assessing potential foreign antigens from the common cold to malignancies. They interact with other cells such as phagocytes (monocytes, macrophages, histiocytes and the like) and more specialized cells called dendritic cells.
Optimal range: 20 - 40 %
What are Lymphocytes and what do they do?
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. They play an important role in your immune system, which helps your body fight disease and infection. Your immune system is made up of an intricate web of immune cells, lymph nodes, lymph tissue and lymphatic organs. Lymphocytes are a type of immune cell.
There are two main types of lymphocytes:
T lymphocytes (T cells): T cells control your body’s immune system response and directly attack and kill infected cells and tumor cells.
B lymphocytes (B cells): B cells make antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that target viruses, bacteria and other foreign invaders.
There is also another type of lymphocyte called natural killer cells. These natural killer cells are able to destroy tumor cells without any prior activation. This is unlike the T cells which need to be activated by another immune cell.
Lymphocytes are able to remember antigens, which are foreign substances that provoke your body’s immune reaction. These include bacteria, viruses, and toxins. After an encounter with an antigen, some lymphocytes develop into memory cells. When these memory lymphocytes meet an antigen for a second time, they respond rapidly and specifically to this antigen. This is why vaccines can prevent certain disorders.
Lymphocytes survey the body’s environment, assessing potential foreign antigens from the common cold to malignancies. They interact with other cells such as phagocytes (monocytes, macrophages, histiocytes and the like) and more specialized cells called dendritic cells.
Optimal range: 0.1 - 0.9 x10E3/uL , 0.10 - 0.90 abs , 0.10 - 0.90 x10^9/L , 100.00 - 900.00 cells/uL
What are Monocytes?
Monocytes are a type of white blood cell (leukocytes) in your immune system.
Monocytes reside in your blood and tissues to find and destroy germs (viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa) and eliminate infected cells. Monocytes call on other white blood cells to help treat injury and prevent infection.
Monocytes turn into macrophage or dendritic cells when an invading germ or bacteria enters your body. The cells either kill the invader or alert other blood cells to help destroy it and prevent infection.
Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells and are about twice the size of red blood cells. These powerful defenders aren’t plentiful in the bloodstream but they’re vital in protecting the body against infection.
Optimal range: 4 - 8 %
What are Monocytes?
Monocytes are a type of white blood cell (leukocytes) in your immune system.
Monocytes reside in your blood and tissues to find and destroy germs (viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa) and eliminate infected cells. Monocytes call on other white blood cells to help treat injury and prevent infection.
Monocytes turn into macrophage or dendritic cells when an invading germ or bacteria enters your body. The cells either kill the invader or alert other blood cells to help destroy it and prevent infection.
Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells and are about twice the size of red blood cells. These powerful defenders aren’t plentiful in the bloodstream but they’re vital in protecting the body against infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 2.9 Ratio
NLR (Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio) is a biomarker that can be used as an indication of subclinical inflammation. NLR is a calculation based on the Absolute Neutrophil Count divided by the Absolute Lymphocyte Count determined by the peripheral blood CBC differential. This calculation, according to recent literature, is useful in assessing the likelihood of severe progression of disease in SARS-CoV-2 positive patients.
Optimal range: 1.4 - 7 x10E3/uL , 1400.00 - 7000.00 cells/uL
What are Neutrophils?
Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell in your body. Neutrophils grow in your bone’s soft tissue (bone marrow) and migrate through your circulation system in your blood and tissues.
Neutrophils are phagocytic, meaning that they engulf and destroy things like bacteria and viruses at the site of an injury. Like all other white blood cells, they also play a part in our body’s inflammatory response to things like allergens.
Neutrophils are clear in color. Neutrophils have a spherical shape when at rest but change shape to fight infection.
Optimal range: 50 - 70 %
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell in the body. They are phagocytic, meaning that they engulf and destroy things like bacteria and viruses at the site of an injury. Like all other white blood cells, they also play a part in our body’s inflammatory response to things like allergens.
Optimal range: 40 - 75 %
Polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells refer to the group of white cells known as granulocytes. The three types of granulocytes are:
Neutrophils
Basophils
Eosinophils
Optimal range: 1.5 - 8.5 cells/mcL
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell in the found. They are phagocytic, meaning that they engulf and destroy things like bacteria and viruses at the site of an injury. Like all other white blood cells, they also play a part in our body’s inflammatory response to things like allergens.
Optimal range: 47 - 55 %
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell found in the body. They are phagocytic, meaning that they engulf and destroy things like bacteria and viruses at the site of an injury. Like all other white blood cells, they also play a part in our body’s inflammatory response to things like allergens.
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Pancreas Health
The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach. It is an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide which circulate in the blood. The pancreas is also a digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.
Optimal range: 31 - 110 U/L
Our bodies use amylase for the digestion of carbohydrates. Primarily the pancreas produces it, and unusual levels of amylase in the blood may point to a problem with the pancreas or the gynecological organs in women. An amylase test is often done along with a lipase test to assess pancreatic health.
Optimal range: 14 - 72 U/L
Lipase is an enzyme produced by the pancreas and is used for digestion. Therefore, abnormal lipase levels are usually indicative of a pancreatic disorder. A healthcare professional may order a lipase test to diagnose or monitor such a condition.
Optimal range: 169 - 773 ng/mL
Trypsin is an enzyme made in the pancreas that helps digest protein foods. In pancreatitis, trypsin levels increase in the blood. The trypsin test is the most accurate test for acute pancreatitis.
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Urinalysis
A urinalysis is a test of your urine. A urinalysis is used to detect and manage a wide range of disorders, such as urinary tract infections (aka UTI), kidney disease and diabetes.
A urinalysis involves checking the appearance, concentration and content of urine. Abnormal urinalysis results may point to a disease or illness.
For example, a urinary tract infection can make urine look cloudy instead of clear. Increased levels of protein in urine can be a sign of kidney disease. Unusual urinalysis results often require more testing to uncover the source of the problem.
Why a urinalysis is performed:
Optimal range: 0 - 30 mg/24 hr
Optimal range: 0 - 0.0001 %
Albumin is one of the proteins found in your blood. If albumin shows up in your urine, it may be a sign of kidney damage.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Alpha-2 globulins is a class of proteins that has many functions in the body and is involved in inflammation.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Alpha-2 globulins is a class of proteins that has many functions in the body and is involved in inflammation.
Optimal range: 0 - 19 ug/L
Arsenic, a toxic heavy metal, can accumulate in the body. It may be of an organic or inorganic (toxic form) source. High levels cause GI distress, kidney problems, skin, heart and nervous system changes in health.
Optimal range: 0 - 50 ug/L
Arsenic is an element found in nature, and in man-made products, including some pesticides. Arsenic is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust. It is found in water, air, food, and soil.
Optimal range: 0 - 50 ug/24 hr
Arsenic is an element found in nature, and in man-made products, including some pesticides. Arsenic is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust. It is found in water, air, food, and soil.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
If bacteria grow in the urine culture test and you have symptoms of an infection or bladder irritation, it means you have a UTI (= Urinary tract infection).
Urine contains fluids, salts and waste products but is sterile or free of bacteria, viruses and other disease-causing organisms. A UTI occurs when bacteria from another source, such as the nearby anus, gets into the urethra. The most common bacteria found to cause UTIs is Escherichia coli (E. coli). Other bacteria can cause UTI, but E. coli is the culprit about 90 percent of the time.
E. coli normally lives harmlessly in the human intestinal tract, but it can cause serious infections if it gets into the urinary tract. In women, the trip from the anus to the urethra is a short one. This is the reason why "wiping front to back" after using the toilet is helpful in preventing UTI.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Beta globulin proteins help carry substances, such as iron, through the bloodstream and help fight infection. They should normally not be detected in urine.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 mg/dL
Bilirubin is primarily derived from metabolism of hemoglobin. Only conjugated bilirubin is excreted into the urine and normally only trace amounts can be detected in urine.
Optimal range: 0 - 1 ug/L
Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal found in soil, water, and air. Plants may contain high levels; foods that tend to accumulate it include soy, rice, tobacco, sunflower seeds and leafy greens. Health problems result from cadmium exposure.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Calcium oxalate crystals are the most common cause of kidney stones — hard clumps of minerals and other substances that form in the kidneys. These crystals are made from oxalate — a substance found in foods like green, leafy vegetables — combined with calcium. Having too much oxalate or too little urine can cause the oxalate to crystalize and clump together into stones.
Kidney stones can be very painful. They can also cause complications like urinary tract infections. But they are often preventable with a few dietary changes.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 mg/dL
Optimal range: 47 - 462 mg/24 hr
A calcium in urine test measures the amount of calcium in your urine. Calcium is one of the most important minerals in your body. You need calcium for healthy bones and teeth. Calcium is also essential for proper functioning of your nerves, muscles, and heart. Almost all of your body's calcium is stored in your bones.
Optimal range: 110 - 250 mmol/24 hr
Chloride is the most abundant ion outside of cells. It is important for maintaining osmotic pressure, nerve cell function, and fluid balance. The urine chloride test is used primarily in cases of suspected metabolic alkalosis.
Optimal range: 7.1 - 48.7 mcg/g creat
Coproporphyrin I is a porphyrin metabolite arising from heme synthesis.
Optimal range: 4.1 - 76.4 mcg/g creat
Coproporphyrin III is a porphyrin derivative.
Small amounts of porphyrins (coproporphyrin) are excreted in normal human urine. Coproporphyrin also is present in bile and feces.
Optimal range: 0.3 - 3 g/L , 30.00 - 300.00 mg/dL
A creatinine test reveals important information about your kidneys.
Creatinine is a chemical waste product of creatine, an amino acid made by the liver and stored in the liver. Creatinine is the result of normal muscle metabolism. The chemical enters your bloodstream after it’s broken down. Your kidneys remove it from your blood. The creatinine then exits the body through urination.
Optimal range: 800 - 1800 mg/24 hr
Creatinine is a chemical waste product produced by muscle metabolism. When your kidneys are functioning normally, they filter creatinine and other waste products out of your blood. These waste products are removed from your body through urination.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
The gamma-globulin fraction contains the immunoglobulins, a family of proteins that function as antibodies.
Optimal range: 0 - 15 mg/dL
Glucose is usually not present in urine, because in the kidneys glucose is reabsorbed from the filtrate of glomerulus, across the tubular epithelium of proximal tubule into the bloodstream.
Optimal range: 0 - 2.9 mcg/g creat
Heptacarboxyporphyrin is a Porphyrin.
Porphyrins are precursors of heme and usually only occur in urine in negligible amounts.
Optimal range: 0 - 5.4 mcg/g creat
Hexacarboxyporphyrin is a Porphyrin. Porphyrins are precursors of heme and usually only occur in urine in negligible amounts.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.9 casts/lpf
Urinary casts are tiny tube-shaped particles that can be found when urine is examined under the microscope during a test called urinalysis. Hyaline casts can be present in low numbers (0-1/LPF) in concentrated urine of otherwise normal patients and are not always associated with renal disease.
Optimal range: 100 - 460 ug/24 hr
Monitor exposure to iodine; evaluate for iodine deficiency disorders (IDDs), excessive iodine intake, or iodine in the workplace
Iodine is an essential element for thyroid hormone production. The Iodine 24 Hour Urine Test measures the amount of iodine excreted from the body. It monitors a person’s exposure to iodine and evaluates for iodine deficiency disorders, excessive iodine intake or iodine in the workplace.
Because levels of substances like iodine can fluctuate throughout the day, evaluating a urine collection over 24 hours can provide a more accurate evaluation than a urine test which only looks at a single collection.
Urinary Iodine levels can help determine if a person is getting healthy amounts of iodine from the food they eat. Unusually high or low levels of iodine can lead to a number of disorders such as hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism.
This test is usually ordered when someone has had irregular results from thyroid tests such as TSH, T3 and T4. Pregnant and nursing women are often tested for iodine because deficiency can have adverse effects on pregnancy and cause developmental difficulties in infants.
Optimal range: 34 - 523 mcg/L
Measurement of urinary iodine excretion provides the best index of dietary iodine intake.
Optimal range: 28 - 544 ug/L
Monitor exposure to iodine; evaluate for iodine deficiency disorders (IDDs), excessive iodine intake, or iodine in the workplace
Iodine is an essential element for thyroid hormone production. It monitors a person’s exposure to iodine and evaluates for iodine deficiency disorders, excessive iodine intake or iodine in the workplace.
Urinary Iodine levels can help determine if a person is getting healthy amounts of iodine from the food they eat. Unusually high or low levels of iodine can lead to a number of disorders such as hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism.
This test is usually ordered when someone has had irregular results from thyroid tests such as TSH, T3 and T4. Pregnant and nursing women are often tested for iodine because deficiency can have adverse effects on pregnancy and cause developmental difficulties in infants.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
What are ketones?
Ketones are produced when the body burns fat for energy. Normally, your body gets the energy it needs from carbohydrates in your diet. But stored fat is broken down and ketones are made if your diet does not contain enough carbohydrate to supply the body with sugar (glucose) for energy or if your body can't use blood sugar (glucose) properly.
Having some ketones in your urine is normal. However, high ketone levels in urine may be a sign of too much acid in your body (ketoacidosis). The most common and life-threatening type of ketoacidosis is a complication of diabetes called diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). If left untreated DKA can cause damage to organs and even death. This is why it is important to know the signs of ketonuria and when to check your ketone levels with a urine or blood test.
Optimal range: 0 - 80 mcg/L
Lead is a potentially toxic element found in paints, batteries, electronics, and ceramics as well as in air, soil, and water. A urine test is a noninvasive test that can detect high levels of lead and prevent potential health issues.
Optimal range: 0 - 29 ug/L
Lead is a potentially toxic element found in paints, batteries, electronics, and ceramics as well as in air, soil, and water. A urine test is a noninvasive test that can detect high levels of lead and prevent potential health issues.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Leukocyte esterase is a test used to detect a substance that suggests there are white blood cells in the urine. This may mean you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 %
M-protein is an abnormal protein produced by myeloma cells that accumulates in and damages bone and bone marrow.
Optimal range: 0 - 19 ug/L
Mercury, abbreviated Hg, comes in inorganic and organic forms. Both are toxic when they accumulate in the body and are associated with serious health problems.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 ug/24 hr
SOURCES:
Mercury (Hg) has three forms:
Elemental (metallic)- older glass thermometers, fluorescent light bulbs, dental amalgams, folk remedies, combustion, electrical industry (switches, batteries, thermostats), solvents, wood processing
Organic (methyl mercury)- seafood, thimerosal (preservative), fungicides
Inorganic- skin lightening compounds, industrial exposure, folk medicine, lamps, photography, disinfectants
Optimal range: 0 - 5 ug/g creat
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
Other names: microscopic urine analysis, microscopic examination of urine, urine test, urine analysis, UA
Mucus is a thick, slippery fluid that coats and moistens certain parts of the body, including the nose, mouth, throat, and urinary tract. A small amount of mucus in your urine (pee) is normal. Having too much mucus may be a sign of a urinary tract infection (UTI) or other medical condition. A test called urinalysis can detect whether there is too much mucus in your urine.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
The presence of nitrates in urine is often considered a predictor of a urinary tract infection (UTI). Urinary tract infections are the most common cause of nitrites in urine. These occur when bacteria infect the bladder, ureters, or kidneys. Nitrites are byproducts of nitrogen waste. Bacteria responsible for an infection feed on this waste, breaking it down into nitrates, which can appear in the urine.
Optimal range: 0 - 3.5 mcg/g creat
Optimal range: 50 - 300 mg
Porphyrins are natural chemicals in the body that help form many important substances in the body. One of these is hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen in the blood.
Optimal range: 25 - 125 mmol/24 hr
Potassium is an electrolyte that helps your cells and organs work. Your body needs it to digest food, keep your heart beating right, and various other activities. You get most of your potassium from foods. Your body uses what it needs, and your kidneys put the rest into your urine as waste.
Optimal range: 30 - 150 mg/24 hr
Optimal range: 0 - 2 /hpf
Red blood cells can enter the urine from the vagina in menstruation or from the trauma of bladder catheterization (a procedure used to diagnose and treat cardiovascular conditions).
Optimal range: 39 - 258 mmol/24 hr
Sodium is an important electrolyte (a mineral in your blood and other bodily fluids) that helps your body and cells function. It helps your body regulate how much fluid it retains.
Optimal range: 0 - 3 HPF
>10 x 106/L squamous epithelial cells indicate skin/mucosal contamination of the sample.
What are epithelial cells?
Epithelial cells are the cells on the body's surface, such as the skin, urinary tract, blood vessels, and organs. They act as a protective barrier, stopping viruses from entering the body. Besides the protective function, epithelial cells perform other functions as well, such as:
→ Help with sensory detection of taste, smell or sight as they transfer signals through the sensory nerve endings
→ Secrete hormones, enzymes, hormones, and fluids
→ Absorb certain substances, such as nutrients from the food
→ Epithelial cells in the kidney excrete waste, and epithelial cells in the sweat glands excrete sweat
→ Filter blood, dirt, and particles
→ Allow selective diffusion of materials to pass through
In general, epithelial cells act as a barrier between the outside and inside of your body, and help protect your body from viruses.
Optimal range: 23.3 - 132.4 mcg/g creat
Porphyrins are natural chemicals in the body that help form many important substances in the body such as hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen in the blood. Porphyrins are normally present at low concentrations in blood and other body fluids, such as urine.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 mg/dL
Urine protein tests detect and/or measure protein being released into the urine. If the kidneys are damaged or compromised due to other conditions, they become less effective at filtering, causing detectable amounts of protein to spill over into the urine.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 mg/d
Urine occult blood is a test to determine if there is blood present in the urine and is done, along with several other tests, during a routine analysis of the urine. Although some urine in the blood isn’t unusual, it can also indicate severe problems with the kidneys or cancer.
Optimal range: 5 - 7.5 pH
Urine pH is a test to assess the pH level of your urine and is done, along with several other tests, during a routine analysis of the urine. Although some fluctuation of urine pH is normal, excessively acidic or alkaline urine can indicate a problem with the kidneys or digestive system.
Optimal range: 1.005 - 1.03 SG
Urine specific gravity is a test to assess the concentration of your urine and is done, along with several other tests, during a routine analysis of the urine. An abnormal urine specific gravity test likely indicates a problem with the kidneys or heart.
Optimal range: 0.2 - 2 mg/dL
Urobilinogen comes from the transformation of bilirubin, a product of the breakdown of hemoglobin in the red blood cells (=heme catabolism).
Urobilinogen is formed from bilirubin by intestinal bacteria in the duodenum (=the first part of the small intestine). Most urobilinogen is excreted in the feces (90%). A portion of it is absorbed back into the blood (around 10%). Around 5% is transported back to the liver and re-secreted into bile again. The remaining urobilinogen (5%) is transported by the blood into the kidneys where it is converted into yellow urobilin and is excreted giving urine its characteristic yellow color.
Optimal range: 4.1 - 22.4 mcg/g creat
Porphyrins are a group of compounds defined by their chemical structure. These compounds are by-products of heme synthesis and are normally present at low levels in blood and other body fluids. Porphyrin tests measure porphyrins and their precursors in urine, blood, and/or stool.
Optimal range: 0.7 - 7.4 mcg/g creat
Porphyrins are a group of compounds defined by their chemical structure. These compounds are by-products of heme synthesis and are normally present at low levels in blood and other body fluids. Porphyrin tests measure porphyrins and their precursors in urine, blood, and/or stool.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 /hpf
Urine is a generally thought of as a sterile body fluid, therefore, evidence of white blood cells or bacteria in the urine is considered abnormal and may suggest a urinary tract infection such as, bladder infection (cystitis), infection of kidney (pyelonephritis).
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Immune System
The immune system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against attacks by “foreign” invaders. These are primarily microbes—tiny organisms such as bacteria, parasites, and fungi that can cause infections.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.2 ng/mL
The 14-3-3eta protein is a marker of synovial inflammation that is released into synovial fluid and peripheral blood in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and erosive psoriatic arthritis.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.45 nmol/L
At the normal neuromuscular junction, a nerve cell tells a muscle cell to contract by releasing the chemical acetylcholine (ACh). ACh attaches to the ACh receptor — a pore or “channel” in the surface of the muscle cell — twisting it open and allowing an inward flux of electrical current that triggers muscle contraction.
Optimal range: 22.9 - 30.2 seconds
The Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) test tells you how many seconds (s) it takes your blood to form a clot after body tissue(s) or blood vessel walls were injured.
Optimal range: 110 - 276 mg/dL
- Alpha-2-Macroglobulin is produced in the liver.
- Increased concentrations are associated with patients with some chronic liver diseases, nephrotic syndrome, and diabetes.
- Decreased concentrations are associated with patients with pancreatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple myeloma.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.01 Units
ANA IFA is a first line screen for detecting the presence of up to approximately 150 autoantibodies in various autoimmune diseases. A positive ANA IFA result is suggestive of autoimmune disease and reflexes to titer and pattern. Further laboratory testing may be considered if clinically indicated.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
The ANA titer is a measure of the amount of ANA in the blood; the higher the titer, the more autoantibodies are present in the sample.
Patient samples are often screened for antinuclear antibodies after being diluted 1:40 and 1:160 in a buffered solution. If staining is observed at both the 1:40 and 1:160 dilutions, then the laboratory continues to dilute the sample until staining can no longer be seen under the microscope. The level to which a patient's sample can be diluted and still produce recognizable staining is known as the ANA "titer."
Optimal range: 0 - 4 IU/ml
The anti-dsDNA test identifies the presence of these autoantibodies in the blood.
The test for anti-dsDNA, along with other autoantibody tests, may be used to help establish a diagnosis of lupus and distinguish it from other autoimmune disorders.
The anti-double-stranded DNA antibody (anti-dsDNA) is a specific type of ANA antibody found in about 30% of people with systemic lupus. Less than 1% of healthy individuals have this antibody, making it helpful in confirming a diagnosis of systemic lupus. The absence of anti-dsDNA, however, does not exclude a diagnosis of lupus.
The presence of anti-dsDNA antibodies often suggests more serious lupus, such as lupus nephritis (kidney lupus). When the disease is active, especially in the kidneys, high amounts of anti-DNA antibodies are usually present. However, the anti-dsDNA test cannot be used to monitor lupus activity, because anti-dsDNA can be present without any clinical activity. Three tests are currently used to detect anti-dsDNA antibodies, namely enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), the Crithidia luciliae immunofluorescence test, and a test called radioimmunoassay.
Low to moderate levels of the autoantibody may be seen with other autoimmune disorders, such as Sjögren syndrome and mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD).
Optimal range: 0 - 7 U/mL
The Anti-Smith Antibody targets your body’s own proteins and is found almost exclusively in people with lupus. Though not all people with lupus have this antibody (only around 30%), those who do usually receive a diagnosis of lupus. Anti-Smith antibody is more common in blacks and Asians with SLE (around 60%) than in whites with SLE.
Optimal range: 0 - 13 MPL
- Anticardiolipins are antibodies produced by the immune system against the platelet membrane phospholipids responsible for the coagulation of blood clots.
- Anticardiolipin antibodies are often responsible (with lupus anticoagulants and beta-2 glycoprotein antibodies) for the abnormal formation of clots in veins (phlebitis) and arteries (arterial thrombosis).
- They are involved in antiphospholipid syndrome, which occurs, for example, through repeated miscarriages during the second or third trimester of pregnancy.
There are three types of anticardiolipin antibodies: IgG, IgA and IgM.
Optimal range: 0 - 12 APL U/mL
- Anticardiolipins are antibodies produced by the immune system against the platelet membrane phospholipids responsible for the coagulation of blood clots.
- Anticardiolipin antibodies are often responsible (with lupus anticoagulants and beta-2 glycoprotein antibodies) for the abnormal formation of clots in veins (phlebitis) and arteries (arterial thrombosis).
- They are involved in antiphospholipid syndrome, which occurs, for example, through repeated miscarriages during the second or third trimester of pregnancy.
There are three types of anticardiolipin antibodies: IgG, IgA and IgM.
Optimal range: 0 - 15 GPL U/mL
- Anticardiolipins are antibodies produced by the immune system against the platelet membrane phospholipids responsible for the coagulation of blood clots.
- Anticardiolipin antibodies are often responsible (with lupus anticoagulants and beta-2 glycoprotein antibodies) for the abnormal formation of clots in veins (phlebitis) and arteries (arterial thrombosis).
- They are involved in antiphospholipid syndrome, which occurs, for example, through repeated miscarriages during the second or third trimester of pregnancy.
There are three types of anticardiolipin antibodies: IgG, IgA and IgM.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.99 Units
Antinuclear antibodies or ANAs are autoantibodies that react to substances within the nucleus of the cell. Antinuclear antibodies can react to almost anything with the nucleus including DNA, centromeres, histones, ribosomes, and other nuclear proteins.
Optimal range: 0 - 19 APS Units
This test is used as an aid in the diagnosis of certain autoimmune thrombotic disorders, such as antiphospholipid syndrome (aPS). Antibodies to PS/PT correlate with the presence of lupus anticoagulants (LA) and this test may be useful in cases with difficult LA test interpretation. This assay may also assist in the determination of risk for thrombosis as well as obstetric complications in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies.
Optimal range: 0 - 30 Units
This test is used as an aid in the diagnosis of certain autoimmune thrombotic disorders, such as antiphospholipid syndrome (aPS). Antibodies to PS/PT correlate with the presence of lupus anticoagulants (LA) and this test may be useful in cases with difficult LA test interpretation. This assay may also assist in the determination of risk for thrombosis as well as obstetric complications in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies.
Optimal range: 0 - 30 Units
This test is used as an aid in the diagnosis of certain autoimmune thrombotic disorders, such as antiphospholipid syndrome (aPS). Antibodies to PS/PT correlate with the presence of lupus anticoagulants (LA) and this test may be useful in cases with difficult LA test interpretation. This assay may also assist in the determination of risk for thrombosis as well as obstetric complications in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies.
Optimal range: 67 - 100 %
C1 inhibitor is a multispecific, protease inhibitor that is present in normal human plasma and serum, and which regulates enzymes of the complement, coagulation, fibrinolytic, and kinin-forming systems. The enzymes (proteases) regulated by this protein include the C1r and C1s subunits of the activated first component of complement, activated XIIa, kallikrein (Fletcher factor), and plasmin.
Optimal range: 21 - 39 mg/dL
Measurement of the C1 esterase inhibitor (the first component of the complement) is used to diagnose hereditary angioedema and to monitor levels of the inhibitor during treatment.
The complement system is a group of nearly 60 proteins in blood plasma or on the surface of some cells. The complement proteins work with your immune system to protect the body from infections. They also help remove dead cells and foreign material. There are nine major complement proteins. They are labeled C1 through C9.
In some rare cases people may inherit deficiency of some complement proteins. These people are prone to certain infections or autoimmune disorders.
Optimal range: 55 - 486 ng/mL
desArg = without arginine
C3a desArg is a cleavage product of C3 complement component activation. Elevated levels of C3a have been reported in patients with acute lyme disease, acute pancreatitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and adult respiratory distress syndrome.
Optimal range: 0 - 11 APL
- Anticardiolipins are antibodies produced by the immune system against the platelet membrane phospholipids responsible for the coagulation of blood clots.
- Anticardiolipin antibodies are often responsible (with lupus anticoagulants and beta-2 glycoprotein antibodies) for the abnormal formation of clots in veins (phlebitis) and arteries (arterial thrombosis).
- They are involved in antiphospholipid syndrome, which occurs, for example, through repeated miscarriages during the second or third trimester of pregnancy.
There are three types of anticardiolipin antibodies: IgG, IgA and IgM.
Optimal range: 0 - 14 GPL
- Anticardiolipins are antibodies produced by the immune system against the platelet membrane phospholipids responsible for the coagulation of blood clots.
- Anticardiolipin antibodies are often responsible (with lupus anticoagulants and beta-2 glycoprotein antibodies) for the abnormal formation of clots in veins (phlebitis) and arteries (arterial thrombosis).
- They are involved in antiphospholipid syndrome, which occurs, for example, through repeated miscarriages during the second or third trimester of pregnancy.
There are three types of anticardiolipin antibodies: IgG, IgA and IgM.
Optimal range: 0 - 12 MPL
- Anticardiolipins are antibodies produced by the immune system against the platelet membrane phospholipids responsible for the coagulation of blood clots.
- Anticardiolipin antibodies are often responsible (with lupus anticoagulants and beta-2 glycoprotein antibodies) for the abnormal formation of clots in veins (phlebitis) and arteries (arterial thrombosis).
- They are involved in antiphospholipid syndrome, which occurs, for example, through repeated miscarriages during the second or third trimester of pregnancy.
There are three types of anticardiolipin antibodies: IgG, IgA and IgM.
Optimal range: 0 - 19 Units
Anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) is an antibody present in most rheumatoid arthritis patients.
Optimal range: 82 - 167 mg/dL
Measurements of serum complement components C3 is useful in the diagnosis and monitoring of immune complex disease e.g. SLE (Systemic lupus erythematosus) and some blood associated infectious diseases. Complement concentrations are acute phase proteins and may be normal, despite complement consumption, in some inflammatory and infective disorders. C3 alone is often decreased in infectious disease (septicaemia, endocarditis).
Measurement of serum complement is useful in the monitoring of specific immune complex diseases e.g SLE and infectious diseases post streptococcal disease, subacute bacterial endocarditis.
Optimal range: 54 - 202 ng/mL
C3 is the most abundant protein of the complement system. C3 can be cleaved in two divalent fragments, where C3b is the larger fragment. C3a is the smaller fragment that is released into the surrounding fluids. C3a can bind to receptors on basophils and mast cells triggering them to release their vasoactive amines (e.g. histamine). Because of the role of these biomarkers in anaphylaxis, C3a is called an anaphylatoxin. C3a is one of the most potent constrictors of smooth muscle cells. C3a has been shown to be a multifunctional pro-inflammatory mediator.
Optimal range: 12 - 38 mg/dL
Complement component 4 (C4) is a blood test that measures the activity of a certain protein. This protein is part of the complement system.
Optimal range: 0 - 650 ng/mL
The complement C4 test is one of the most frequently used complement component tests. Your doctor may order a complement C4 test if you’re experiencing symptoms that indicate an autoimmune disease.
Optimal range: 42 - 999999 U/mL
A total complement measurement, also known as a total hemolytic complement or a CH50 measurement, checks how well the complement system is functioning.
Complement was discovered by Jules Bordet as a heat-labile component of normal plasma that causes the opsonisation and killing of bacteria. The complement system refers to a series of >20 proteins, circulating in the blood and tissue fluids. Most of the proteins are normally inactive, but in response to the recognition of molecular components of microorganisms they become sequentially activated in an enzyme cascade – the activation of one protein enzymatically cleaves and activates the next protein in the cascade.
Optimal range: 31 - 59.99 U/mL
A total complement measurement, also known as a total hemolytic complement or a CH50 measurement, checks how well the complement system is functioning.
Complement was discovered by Jules Bordet as a heat-labile component of normal plasma that causes the opsonisation and killing of bacteria. The complement system refers to a series of >20 proteins, circulating in the blood and tissue fluids. Most of the proteins are normally inactive, but in response to the recognition of molecular components of microorganisms they become sequentially activated in an enzyme cascade – the activation of one protein enzymatically cleaves and activates the next protein in the cascade.
Optimal range: 0 - 19.9 Units
To help diagnose rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and differentiate it from other types of arthritis.
Optimal range: 29 - 42 seconds
Dilute Russell's viper venom time (dRVVT) is a laboratory test often used for detection of lupus anticoagulant (LA). Russell's viper venom [RVV] isolated from the snake Daboia russelii contains a potent activator of factor X which in the presence of phospholipid, prothrombin and calcium ions clots fibrinogen to fibrin. In individuals with a lupus anticoagulant the antibody binds to the phospholipid inhibiting the action of the RVV and prolonging the clotting time.
Optimal range: 0 - 45 seconds
Dilute Russell's viper venom time (dRVVT) is a laboratory test often used for detection of lupus anticoagulant (LA). Russell's viper venom [RVV] isolated from the snake Daboia russelii contains a potent activator of factor X which in the presence of phospholipid, prothrombin and calcium ions clots fibrinogen to fibrin. In individuals with a lupus anticoagulant the antibody binds to the phospholipid inhibiting the action of the RVV and prolonging the clotting time.
Optimal range: 0 - 29.9 IU/ml
Evaluating patients with signs and symptoms consistent with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
Optimal range: 0 - 40 mm/hr
The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR or sed rate) is a relatively simple, inexpensive, non-specific test that has been used for many years to help detect inflammation associated with conditions such as infections, cancers, and autoimmune diseases.
Optimal range: 3.3 - 19.4 mg/L
Light chains are proteins produced by immune cells called plasma cells. Also called kappa light chains, they link together with other proteins (heavy chains) to form immunoglobulins (= antibodies) that target and neutralize specific threats to the body (= bacteria & viruses).
Optimal range: 5.71 - 26.3 mg/L
Light chains are proteins produced by immune cells called plasma cells. Also called “Free Lambda Light Chains” they link together with other proteins (heavy chains) to form immunoglobulins (= antibodies) that target and neutralize specific threats to the body (= bacteria & viruses).
Optimal range: 0 - 100 pg/mL
The Gastrin test is a simple blood test that checks for excess gastrin production. Gastrin is a hormone your stomach makes to fuel the release of gastric acid. Your body needs this to digest and absorb nutrients in your food, particularly proteins and amino acids.
Gastric acid is found inside cells called G cells. These are located in your stomach lining and the lining of your upper small intestine.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.99 ng/mL
Histamine is a substance that is produced by the body as part of an allergic reaction.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
- To determine whether you have human leukocyte antigen B27 (HLA-B27) on the surface of your cells
- To help assess the likelihood that you have an autoimmune disorder associated with the presence of HLA-B27.
- Autoimmune disorders occur when the immune system mistakenly targets the body’s own cells and tissues.
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The HLA-B27 test is primarily ordered to help strengthen or confirm a suspected diagnosis of ankylosing spondylitis (AS), reactive arthritis, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA), or sometimes anterior uveitis. The HLA-B27 test is not diagnostic; that is, it is not a definitive test that can be used to diagnose or rule out a disorder. The result adds information and is one piece of evidence used along with the evaluation of signs, symptoms, and other laboratory tests to support or rule out the diagnosis of certain autoimmune disorders, such as ankylosing spondylitis and reactive arthritis.
The HLA-B27 test may be ordered as part of a group of tests used to help diagnose and evaluate conditions causing arthritis-like chronic joint pain, stiffness, and inflammation. This group of tests may include a rheumatoid factor (RF) with either an erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) or a C-reactive protein (CRP). HLA-B27 is sometimes ordered to help evaluate someone with recurrent uveitis that is not caused by a recognizable disease process.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 x10E3/µL
Immature granulocytes are white blood cells that are immature. Whenever your body is fighting an infection, it will increase its white blood cell count, and more white blood cells will be immature.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.5 %
Immature granulocytes are white blood cells that are immature. Whenever your body is fighting an infection, it will increase its white blood cell count, and more white blood cells will be immature.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Immunofixation electrophoresis or immunosubtraction capillary electrophoresis identifies the type of immunoglobulin protein(s) present as monoclonal bands on a protein electrophoresis pattern. Typically, this testing determines the presence and type of monoclonal proteins (e.g., IgG kappa).
Optimal range: 47 - 310 mg/dL
IgA antibodies are found in areas of the body such the nose, breathing passages, digestive tract, ears, eyes, and vagina. IgA antibodies protect body surfaces that are exposed to outside foreign substances. This type of antibody is also found in saliva, tears, and blood. About 10% to 15% of the antibodies present in the body are IgA antibodies. A small number of people do not make IgA antibodies.
Optimal range: 0 - 14.11 mg/dL
Immunoglobulin D (IgD) is an antibody isotype that makes up about 1% of proteins in the plasma membranes of immature B-lymphocytes where it is usually coexpressed with another cell surface antibody called IgM.
Remains in the bloodstream to fight bacteria. Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to antigens. It has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors.
Optimal range: 0 - 114 IU/ml
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) are antibodies produced by the immune system.
IgE antibodies are found in the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes. They cause the body to react against foreign substances such as pollen, fungus spores, and animal dander. They are also involved in allergic reactions to milk, some medicines, and some poisons.
Optimal range: 600 - 1640 mg/dL
Immunoglobulin G (IgG), the most abundant type of antibody, is found in all body fluids and protects against bacterial and viral infections.
Optimal range: 26 - 217 mg/dL
Immunoglobulin M (IgM), which is found mainly in the blood and lymph fluid, is the first antibody to be made by the body to fight a new infection. Expressed on the surface of B cells (monomer) and in a secreted form (pentamer) with very high avidity (forms multiple binding sites with antigen). Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B-cell mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient IgG.
Optimal range: 0 - 31.2 pg/mL
Interleukin 2 (IL-2) is a pleiotropic (=having multiple effects from a single gene) cytokine produced primarily by mitogen- or antigen- activated T lymphocytes. Interleukin 2 is an important disease marker in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), but there are no published data on its diagnostic value in adults.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.8 pg/mL
Interleukin-6 is involved in inflammation and infection responses and also in the regulation of metabolic, regenerative, and neural processes.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.99 Units
This test measures the amount of antibodies to anti-Jo-1 in blood. It is used to help diagnose and manage muscle diseases that affects the immune system such as polymyositis (a type of chronic inflammation of the muscles) associated with autoimmune disease.
Optimal range: 0.26 - 1.65 Ratio
Free light chains will normally be present in the blood at low levels, with a kappa/lambda ratio of approximately 0.26 to 1.65 for individuals with normal kidney function.
Excess production of free kappa or lambda chains can alter this ratio. Monoclonal free light chains are found in serum of patients with multiple myeloma, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, mu-heavy chain disease, primary amyloidosis, light chain deposition disease, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance, and lymphoproliferative disorders.
When the test is used to monitor a known plasma cell disorder, a decrease in the quantity of excess light chain and a more normal kappa/lambda ratio may indicate a response to treatment.
Decreased free light chains with a normal kappa/lambda ratio may be seen with a disorder that suppresses bone marrow cell production.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 Units
These antibodies target a human body’s produced enzyme called cytochrome P450 2D6, a protein found primarily in liver cells which catalyze many reactions involved in drug metabolism. The development of the LKM antibodies is strongly associated with type 2 autoimmune hepatitis.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 GPL
Lupus anticoagulants are antibodies against substances in the lining of cells. These substances prevent blood clotting in a test tube.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 U/mL
Anti-phosphatidylethanolamine (aPE) is an autoimmune condition characterized by the presence of circulating antibodies against phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and is associated with clinical symptoms of thrombosis and repeated pregnancy loss.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 U/mL
Anti-phosphatidylethanolamine (aPE) is an autoimmune condition characterized by the presence of circulating antibodies against phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and is associated with clinical symptoms of thrombosis and repeated pregnancy loss.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 U/mL
Anti-phosphatidylethanolamine (aPE) is an autoimmune condition characterized by the presence of circulating antibodies against phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and is associated with clinical symptoms of thrombosis and repeated pregnancy loss.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 U/mL
The presence of phosphatidylserine antibodies may be associated with thrombosis, fetal loss and thrombocytopenia.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 U/mL
The presence of phosphatidylserine antibodies may be associated with thrombosis, fetal loss and thrombocytopenia.
Optimal range: 0 - 25 U/mL
The presence of phosphatidylserine antibodies may be associated with thrombosis, fetal loss and thrombocytopenia.
Optimal range: 4 - 43 ng/mL
PAI-1 is a serine protein inhibitor that is secreted in response to inflammatory reactions.
PAI-1 is the main inhibitor of tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and, as such, plays an important role in the regulation of fibrinolysis.
Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor (PAI-1) AG is useful to:
- aid in prognosis of occurrence or recurrence of thrombosis
- intentify heredity elevation or deficiency of plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1.
- determine the risk for veno-occlusive disease associated with bone marrow transplantation.
- aid diagnosis of impaired fibrinolysis
Optimal range: 41 - 372 pmol/L
Prothrombin Fragment 1.2 is stable degradation product and its measurement in plasma can be used as a marker of Thrombin generation. Measurement of F1+2 has been used to diagnose Pre-thrombotic states and Thrombotic disorders and in addition to monitor the efficacy of treatment in these disorders.
Optimal range: 9 - 11.5 seconds
Prothrombin time (PT) is a blood test that measures the time it takes for the liquid portion (plasma) of your blood to clot.
Optimal range: 0.8 - 1.1 seconds
Prothrombin time (PT) is a blood test that measures the time it takes for the liquid portion (plasma) of your blood to clot.
Optimal range: 0 - 13.9 IU/ml
The rheumatoid arthritis (RA) latex turbid test is a laboratory test that’s used to help your doctor diagnose rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases.
Optimal range: 14 - 20 seconds
The reptilase clotting time measures the rate of fibrin clot formation after the addition of reptilase, a proteolytic enzyme derived from the venom of Bothrops atrox, to citrated plasma.
Reptilase is a thrombin-like enzyme.
Unlike thrombin, which cleaves fibrinogen to produce fibrinopeptides A and B, reptilase cleaves the fibrinogen molecule to release only fibrinopeptide A.
Optimal range: 0 - 14 IU/ml
A rheumatoid factor test measures the amount of rheumatoid factor in your blood. Rheumatoid factors are proteins produced by your immune system that can attack healthy tissue in your body.
Optimal range: 867 - 6662 pg/mL
Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) plays a crucial role in tissue regeneration, cell differentiation, embryonic development, and regulation of the immune system. Transforming growth factor beta is found in hematopoietic (blood-forming) tissue and initiates a signaling pathway that suppresses the early development of cancer cells. It enhances the deposition of extracellular matrix and may play potential role in wound healing and cirrhosis formation. Many cells synthesize TGF-b and almost all of them have specific receptors for this peptide.
TGF Beta-1 is a protein that has important regulatory effects throughout innate immune pathways. This protein helps control the growth and division (proliferation) of cells, the process by which cells mature to carry out specific functions (differentiation), cell movement (motility), and the self-destruction of cells (apoptosis). The TGF Beta-1 protein is found throughout the body and plays a role in development before birth, the formation of blood vessels, the regulation of muscle tissue and body fat development, wound healing, and immune system function (especially regulatory T-cells).
TGF Beta-1 can impair T-regulatory cell function, which in turn contributes to the activation of autoimmunity, yet TGF Beta-1 also plays a role in suppressing autoimmunity. Neurologic, autoimmune and many other systemmic problems also are found with high TGF Beta-1.
Optimal range: 11.3 - 18.5 seconds
Thrombin is an enzyme in the blood that acts on the clotting factor fibrinogen to form fibrin, helping blood to clot. The thrombin time assesses the activity of fibrinogen.
Optimal range: 0 - 4.3 mcg/L
The Thrombin-Antithrombin Complex keeps clotting in check.
Thrombin-Antithrombin (TAT) Complex is a parameter of coagulation (= the process by which a blood clot is formed in order to stop bleeding) and fibrinolysis (= prevents blood clots that occur naturally from growing and causing problems).
Deficiencies may aid in understanding hypercoagulable states. Elevated concentrations have been associated with vascular complications associated with diabetes.
Optimal range: 867 - 6662 pg/mL
Transforming growth factor (TGF-beta) is a multifunctional peptide growth factor that has an important role in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and repair in a variety of tissues.
Optimal range: 2.2 - 13.2 ug/L
Tryptase is an enzyme that is released, along with histamine and other chemicals, from mast cells when they are activated as part of a normal immune response as well as in allergic (hypersensitivity) responses.
Optimal range: 0 - 115 pg/mL
VEGF stands for Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor. VEGF is a growth factor that promotes the growth of new blood vessels.
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Other
This category includes all markers that do not fall into any of the other categories.
Optimal range: 0 - 251 U/mL
The AntiDNAse B Titer is a test used in conjunction with ASO titer tests. It tests for poststreptococcal complications.
Optimal range: 0 - 200 IU/ml
This test can help determine whether you have had a recent strep infection with the bacteria group A Streptococcus; to help diagnose complications resulting from a strep infection such as rheumatic fever or glomerulonephritis, a form of kidney disease. This test measures the amount of ASO in the blood.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.94 index
Bordetella pertussis causes whooping cough, a worldwide infectious disease that is transmitted from person to person by droplet infection. Especially children at the age of 0-4 years are affected, and the mortality of infected infants is high.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kunits/L
Testing for IgE antibodies may be useful to establish the diagnosis of an allergic disease and to define the allergens responsible for eliciting signs and symptoms.
Optimal range: 100 - 1000 U/L
CD1656 are an important NK (Natural killer) cell subset.
- NK cells are best known for killing virally infected cells, and detecting and controlling early signs of cancer. As well as protecting against disease, specialized NK cells are also found in the placenta and may play an important role in pregnancy.
- Natural killer T (NKT) cells represent a specialized T-cell population that is distinct from conventional T cells. They express an invariant T-cell receptor (TCR) that recognizes self and bacterial glycosphingolipid antigens presented by the MHC class I-like molecule, CD1d.
- Human natural killer (NK) cells can be subdivided in several subpopulations on the basis of the relative expression of the adhesion molecule CD56 and the activating receptor CD16.
- NK cells serve an important role in host defense against viral infections, as well as tumor surveillance. They are also a component of the adaptive immune response through cytokine production.
- NK cell functions are governed by a balance between activating receptors and inhibitory receptors.
Optimal range: 0.48 - 3.04 mg/L
Coenzyme Q10, also known as ubiquinone is a cofactor, electron carrier, and antioxidant. It is a critical component of the electron transport chain in mitochondria.
Optimal range: 0.37 - 2.2 ug/ml
Coenzyme Q10, also known as ubiquinone is a cofactor, electron carrier, and antioxidant. It is a critical component of the electron transport chain in mitochondria.
Optimal range: 0.1 - 0.3 IU/ml
Diphtheria is a contagious and potentially fatal disease caused by a bacterium called Corynebacterium diphtheria. Testing for the antibodies against the disease gives doctors an idea if you have immunity towards diphtheria.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.7 EV
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a type of bacteria. These germs can enter your body and live in your digestive tract. After many years, they can cause sores, called ulcers, in the lining of your stomach or the upper part of your small intestine.
Optimal range: 0 - 14.9 ug/L
Mercury (Hg) is a heavy metal element. It exists in three forms: elemental, inorganic, and organic. All three of these forms of mercury can be toxic, causing several health problems.
Optimal range: 0 - 62 pg/mL
Metanephrine, a metabolite of epinephrine, is at normally low levels in the plasma. Certain tumors increase the levels and will increase the levels of Metanephrine. The Metanephrine test, when normal, means these tumors are not present.
Optimal range: 0.3 - 1.5 mg/dL
Pyruvate or pyruvic acid is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways. Abnormalities in pyruvate alone are not diagnostic of any disease, but they are clinically useful when measured with lactate deform the lactate to pyruvate ratio.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Optimal range: 0 - 0.0001 Units
Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is a tick-borne disease caused by the intracellular bacterium Rickettsia rickettsii.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Special Stains Test is a lab test performed on a skin sample (biopsy) to determine the pathology and confirm there is a skin disease present. It may also be used to monitor the effects of treatment of the skin disease.
Optimal range: 0.1 - 0.5 IU/ml
Optimal range: 176 - 323 ug/ml
Glutathione is an antioxidant, a type of chemical which helps to boost your immune system as well as prevent and reverse cellular damage. Unlike most antioxidants which come from the food you eat, glutathione is naturally produced by the body in the liver. Glutathione plays a number of roles in overall health including boosting the immune system, helping to break down nutrients in food, and protecting against chronic diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinsons, diabetes, some types of cancer, and heart disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 Units
Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. While the parasite is found throughout the world, more than 40 million people in the United States may be infected with the Toxoplasma parasite. The Toxoplasma parasite can persist for long periods of time in the bodies of humans (and other animals), possibly even for a lifetime.
Optimal range: 0 - 40 IU/ml
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that is capable of infecting a variety of intermediate hosts including humans. Infected definitive hosts (cats) shed oocysts in feces that rapidly mature in the soil and become infectious.
Optimal range: 0 - 2.2 pg/mL
Tumour Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF alpha), is an inflammatory cytokine produced by macrophages/monocytes during acute inflammation and is responsible for a diverse range of signalling events within cells, leading to necrosis or apoptosis. The protein is also important for resistance to infection and cancers.
Optimal range: 1.1 - 10 AI
The Varicella-Zoster Antibody (IgG) test looks for antibodies in your blood that your body makes against the varicella-zoster virus. It is very contagious. Varicella-zoster virus, a herpesvirus, causes two distinct rash-associated diseases:
– chickenpox (varicella)
– shingles (herpes zoster).
Optimal range: 1.5 - 1.9 Units
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Stool
In this category we look at digestion, absorbtion, gut immunology, gut metabolism, gut microbiology, beneficial bacteria and fecal fats.
Optimal range: 0 - 99 Units
Astrovirus can cause diarrheal illness (gastroenteritis). Infants and young children are most likely to have diarrhea caused by astroviruses, but the infection also occurs in the elderly and those with compromised immune systems.
Optimal range: 13.6 - 150 micromol/g
Short chain fatty acids are saturated fatty acids consisting of no more than 6 carbons. The most common forms—acetate, propionate, and butyrate—are also helpful for colon and overall health. Thus, they are called beneficial SCFAs.
Optimal range: 4 - 10 Units
Optimal range: 0.9 - 26.8 U/g
Chymotrypsin is a protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the pancreas. It is useful in monitoring if you have moderate to severe pancreatic dysfunction. When you have symptoms such as persistent diarrhea; foul-smelling, bulky, greasy stools; malnutrition; malabsorption; and vitamin deficiency and pancreatic insufficiency is suspected.
Optimal range: 0.67 - 6.76 mg/g
Deoxycholic acid (DCA) is a secondary bile acid and part of the metabolic category of the Genova test panel. Bile acids are end products of hepatic cholesterol metabolism that play an important role in fat emulsion and detoxification.
Optimal range: 0 - 99 Units
Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (EAEC) are quite heterogeneous category of an emerging enteric pathogen associated with cases of acute or persistent diarrhea worldwide in children and adults, and over the past decade has received increasing attention as a cause of watery diarrhea, which is often persistent. EAEC infection is an important cause of diarrhea in outbreak and non-outbreak settings in developing and developed countries. Recently, EAEC has been implicated in the development of irritable bowel syndrome, but this remains to be confirmed.
Optimal range: 0 - 99 Units
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) is a gram-negative bacterial pathogen that adheres to intestinal epithelial cells, causing diarrhea.
Optimal range: 0 - 99 Units
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (E. coli), or ETEC, is an important cause of bacterial diarrheal illness. Infection with ETEC is the leading cause of travelers’ diarrhea and a major cause of diarrheal disease in lower-income countries, especially among children.
Optimal range: 2 - 10 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.0001 Units
Optimal range: 2 - 10 Units
Lactobacillus species is a type of bacteria. There are lots of different species of lactobacillus.
Lactobacillus bacteria are commonly found in the human gut, mouth and vagina. They are considered generally as “good bacteria”, and in fact may contribute to good health, often being included in probiotic supplements. These bacteria are characterized by their ability to produce lactic acid as a byproduct of glucose metabolism.
Optimal range: 0.39 - 2.07 Ratio
LCA and DCA are secondary bile acids. These secondary bile acids are associated with disease. An LCA:DCA ratio greater than 1 is associated with increased risk of gallstones, breast cancer, and colorectal cancer.
Optimal range: 0.65 - 5.21 mg/g
Optimal range: 0 - 4 U/mL
Optimal range: 0 - 4999 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 999 Units
Plesiomonas shigelloides is a Gram-negative bacillus found in aquatic environments that has been primarily associated with sporadic cases and outbreaks of diarrheal disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 9999999 Units
Prevotella copri is a gut bacteria that may cause rheumatoid arthritis. Studies consistently find different bacterial patterns in people with inflammatory arthritis vs controls.
Optimal range: 1.3 - 8.6 micromol/g
Valerate, isovalerate and isobutyrate constitute the putrefactive short chain fatty acids (SCFAs).
Valerate, isovalerate and isobutyrate are produced exclusively by fermentation of protein. These SCFAs are putrefactive, and suggest underlying protein maldigestion, malabsorption, or BOSI.
Optimal range: 0 - 99 Units
Rotavirus affects the intestines and causes vomiting and diarrhea. This infection is especially common in young children, but it can affect adults, too. A rotavirus infection causes a condition called viral gastroenteritis.
Optimal range: 6.1 - 7.9 pH
A fecal pH test is one where a specimen of feces is tested for acidity in order to diagnose a medical condition.
Stool pH is dependent in part on fermentation of sugars. Colonic fermentation of normal amounts of carbohydrate sugars and production of fatty acids accounts for the normally slightly acidic pH.
Optimal range: 0 - 99999 Units
Vibrios are inhabitants of estuarine and fresh waters and some species are pathogenic to humans, and marine vertebrates and invertebrates. In humans, some species of vibrios can cause gastroenteritis following ingestion of contaminated food or water and septicemia when pre-existing cuts or abrasions on skin come in contact with contaminated water or seafoods.
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Gonadotropins
The gonadotropins are peptide hormones that regulate ovarian and testicular function and are essential for normal growth, sexual development and reproduction. The human gonadotropins include follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone which are made in the pituitary, and chorionic gonadotropin which is made by the placenta.
Optimal range: 1.5 - 12.4 IU/L
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is a pituitary hormone that regulates growth, sexual development and reproduction, including menstruation, follicular development and ovulation.
Optimal range: 0.7 - 12.5 IU/L
Luteinizing hormone (LH) is hormone associated with reproduction and the stimulation of the release of an egg from the ovary (ovulation) in women and testosterone production in men.
Optimal range: 102 - 496 mU/L , 4.79 - 23.31 ng/mL
Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that causes breast development in women and milk production in pregnant women. Prolactin does not have known biological function in men.
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DUTCH
The DUTCH test is a urine steroid hormone test that measures hormones and hormone metabolites from a dried urine sample.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.2 ng/mg
16α-Hydroxyestrone (16α-OH-E1), or hydroxyestrone, also known as estra-1,3,5(10)-trien-3,16α-diol-17-one, is an endogenous steroidal estrogen and a major metabolite of estrone, as well as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of estriol.
Optimal range: 0 - 2.8 ng/mg
The 2-Methoxy Estrogens are considered to be protective. Low levels are usually a reflection of overall low estrogens and may be improved with supplemental estrogen.
Optimal range: 0 - 5.9 ng/mg
2-Hydroxyestrone is an endogenous biomarker and major urinary metabolite of estrone and estradiol. Along with 16α-Hydroxyestrone, 2-Hydroxyestrone is used as an indicator for increased risk of cancer.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.8 ng/mg
A very carcinogenic estrogen metabolite, levels low in the reference range are desirable. Additional magnesium, liver support, and methylation support may help decrease 4-OH-E1 levels.
Optimal range: 20 - 130 ng/mg
Progesterone itself is not readily found in the urine. Instead, this test measures pregnanediol (a progesterone metabolite). Pregnanediol is well-established in research literature as a reliable marker for progesterone levels.
Optimal range: 580 - 3000 ng/mg
This test measures pregnanediol, a metabolite of progesterone. It is used in the evaluation and decision making in women who are having difficulty becoming pregnant or maintaining a pregnancy. It is also used to monitor “high-risk” pregnancies.
Optimal range: 75 - 400 ng/mg
Progesterone itself is not readily found in the urine. Instead, this test measures pregnanediol (a progesterone metabolite). Pregnanediol is well-established in research literature as a reliable marker for progesterone levels.
Optimal range: 2000 - 9000 ng/mg
Pregnanediol is a metabolite of the molecule of progesterone, which is important for fertility and for menstruation. Pregnanediol levels increase after ovulation and when the placenta releases the hormone.
Optimal range: 0.5 - 2.2 ng/mg
Estradiol is the main "female" hormone. The full name is 17-beta-Estradiol.
Current research indicates that, in some people, this hormone may play a role in the loss of bone density, prevents male bodies from clearing DHT out of the prostate gland, and can stimulate estrogen-sensitive tumor growth (if estrogen-sensitive cancer cells are already present).
Optimal range: 2 - 8 ng/mg
Has weak estrogen activity. Considered to be a protective estrogen. Most prevalent estrogen in pregnancy.
Optimal range: 4 - 16 ng/mg
There are three types of estrogen: estradiol, estriol, and estrone. Estradiol is the primary female sex hormone. Estriol and estrone are minor female sex hormones. Estriol is nearly undetectable in women who aren’t pregnant.
Optimal range: 6 - 20 ng/mL
Although Progesterone is found in both males and females, it is primarily known for its role in conception, pregnancy, and the regulation of a woman’s menstrual cycle.
Optimal range: 10 - 34 ng/mg
Estrogen is known as the “female” hormone. The four major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), and estetrol (E4).
Although estrogen is identified with females, it is also found in men.
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Endocrinology
Endocrinology is the study of medicine that relates to the endocrine system, which is the system that controls hormones. An endocrinologist will deal with diseases that are caused by problems with hormones.
Optimal range: 35 - 290 ng/dL
17-OHP is produced by the adrenal gland as part of the process of making the important hormone cortisol. The adrenal glands are two small glands. One is located on top of each kidney. Along with special enzymes, or proteins, 17-OH progesterone is converted to a hormone called cortisol.
Optimal range: 7.2 - 63.3 pg/mL
ACTH, a pituitary hormone, stimulates cortisol production from the adrenal glands. If ACTH levels are too low or too high, it can indicate that the pituitary or the adrenal glands are diseased.
Optimal range: 0 - 4.7 pg/mL
ADH stands for antidiuretic hormone also known as vasopressin. ADH primarily acts in the kidney to resorb water. Vasopressin can also be administered to raise blood pressure.
Optimal range: 0 - 30 ng/dL per ng/mL/hr
The aldosterone to renin ratio blood test measures the amount of aldosterone divided by the amount of renin in the blood plasma. The test determines whether or not primary hyperaldosteronism is present and causing high blood pressure.
Optimal range: 0 - 30 ng/dL
Aldosterone is a mineralcoritcoid and a hormone. It allows the transport of sodium across the cell membrane. Aldosterone is important in blood pressure regulation and also for the volume of blood found in the blood vessels.
Optimal range: 5.5 - 37.4 pmol/L , 0.77 - 5.24 ng/mL
Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) is a protein hormone produced by cells within the ovary. Understanding your AMH level can help to assess your ovarian egg reserve and therefore your fertility.
Optimal range: 6.2 - 19.4 ug/dL , 171.03 - 535.17 nmol/L
Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is the primary agent used in our body’s flight or fight response to threatening stimuli.
Optimal range: 2.3 - 19.4 µg/dL , 63.46 - 535.25 nmol/L
Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is the primary agent used in our body’s flight or fight response to threatening stimuli. Levels naturally peak in the morning and then reach their lowest point at night. A high blood cortisol level at night may indicate a problem with the adrenal glands; however, individuals who work at night and sleep during the day will have an inversed pattern.
Optimal range: 19 - 45 mg/L , 1.90 - 4.50 mg/dL
Cortisol-binding globulin (CBG) is a serum alpha-2-globulin-binding protein with high affinity and limited capacity for cortisol. It binds most (±92%) of the serum cortisol; the remaining cortisol (±8%) circulates in a free form or bound to albumin.
Optimal range: 71.6 - 375.4 mcg/dL , 1.94 - 10.17 umol/L
It stands for Dehydroepiandrosterone and is a building block of steroid hormones that is produced predominantly in the adrenal glands.
Optimal range: 45.4 - 1461 pmol/L , 12.37 - 397.98 pg/mL
Estradiol (Estrogen) is a female hormone, produced primarily in the ovary. The amount of estrogen produced depends on the phase of the menstrual cycle.
Men also produce estradiol, but only very small amounts.
Shortly before ovulation, estradiol levels surge and then fall immediately after ovulation. They then rise again and remain elevated until 2-3 days before menstruation.
Optimal range: 7.6 - 42.6 pg/mL , 27.90 - 156.40 pmol/L
Estradiol is the main "female" hormone. The full name is 17-beta-Estradiol.
Current research indicates that, in some people, this hormone may play a role in the loss of bone density, prevents male bodies from clearing DHT out of the prostate gland, and can stimulate estrogen-sensitive tumor growth (if estrogen-sensitive cancer cells are already present).
Men need to produce estrogen through a process involving an enzyme called aromatase that transforms testosterone into estradiol.
Aging men sometimes have too much aromatase activity, which causes their testosterone to convert to excess estradiol. This results in depletion of vital testosterone while spiking estradiol to unsafe ranges.
Optimal range: 30 - 100 pg/mL
Please check the reference ranges in the description on the main dashboard as this marker is age and gender specific.
- Estradiol is responsible for the regulation of the estrous and female menstrual reproductive cycles and for the development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics.
- Estradiol plays a key role in germ cell maturation and numerous other, non−gender-specific processes, including growth, bone metabolism, nervous system maturation, and endothelial responsiveness.
- Estrogens are crucial for the normal development and maintenance of the breasts and the uterus.
- Excessive estrogen levels, however, can promote cell proliferation and may increase the risk of developing breast and uterine cancers as well as uterine endometriosis.
Optimal range: 50 - 170 pg/mL
Total estrogen is a reliable test for estrogen status and is used to detect hormone imbalances.
Estrogen is known as the “female” hormone. The four major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), and estetrol (E4).
Optimal range: 60 - 190 pg/mL
Estrogen is known as the “female” hormone. The four major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), and estetrol (E4).
Although estrogen is identified with females, it is also found in men.
Optimal range: 22 - 200 pg/mL
Estrone (E1) is a steroid, a weak estrogen, and a minor female sex hormone. Estrone is one of three major endogenous estrogens, the others being estradiol and estriol. Like the other estrogens, estrone is synthesized from cholesterol and secreted mainly from the gonads, though they can also be formed from adrenal androgens in adipose tissue. Estrone is primarily derived from metabolism of androstenedione in peripheral tissues, especially adipose tissues. Estrone can be converted into estradiol and serves mainly as a precursor or metabolic intermediate of estradiol. In addition, an increase in the ratio of estrone to estradiol may be useful in assessing menopause in women.
Optimal range: 15 - 65 pg/mL
Estrone (E1) is a steroid, a weak estrogen, and a minor female sex hormone. Estrone is one of three major endogenous estrogens, the others being estradiol and estriol. Like the other estrogens, estrone is synthesized from cholesterol and secreted mainly from the gonads, though they can also be formed from adrenal androgens in adipose tissue. Estrone is primarily derived from metabolism of androstenedione in peripheral tissues, especially adipose tissues. Estrone can be converted into estradiol and serves mainly as a precursor or metabolic intermediate of estradiol. In addition, an increase in the ratio of estrone to estradiol may be useful in assessing menopause in women.
Optimal range: 0.2 - 1.8 ug/dL
This cortisol test measures the level of cortisol in your blood to see if your levels are normal.
Cortisol is made by your adrenal glands, two small glands that sit above the kidneys. A gland in your brain, called the pituitary gland, makes a hormone that tells your adrenal glands how much cortisol to make. If your cortisol levels are too high or too low, it may mean you have a disorder of your adrenal glands, a problem with your pituitary gland, or a tumor that makes cortisol.
Optimal range: 11 - 78 pg/mL
Glucagon is a peptide hormone secreted from the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. Hypoglycemia is physiologically the most potent secretory stimulus and the best known action of glucagon is to stimulate glucose production in the liver and thereby to maintain adequate plasma glucose concentrations. However, glucagon is also involved in hepatic lipid and amino acid metabolism and may increase resting energy expenditure. Based on satiety-inducing and food intake-lowering effects of exogenous glucagon, a role for glucagon in the regulation of appetite has also been proposed.
Optimal range: 0 - 6 ng/mL
Growth hormone is a hormone that is important for growth and development in children.
Where is growth hormone produces?
Growth hormone is produced by the pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain behind the bridge of the nose. It is normally released into the blood in pulses throughout the day and night with peaks that occur mostly during the night. Because of this, a single measurement of the level of GH in blood is difficult to interpret and not usually clinically useful. The value will be higher if the sample is taken during a pulse and lower if it is taken during a period between pulses.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
A qualitative HCG blood test checks if there is a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin in your blood. HCG is a hormone produced in the body during pregnancy.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Type 1 diabetes, commonly referred to as insulin-dependent diabetes (IDDM), is caused by pancreatic beta-cell destruction that leads to an absolute insulin deficiency. The clinical onset of diabetes does not occur until 80% to 90% of these cells have been destroyed. Prior to clinical onset, type 1 diabetes is often characterized by circulating autoantibodies against a variety of islet cell antigens, including glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), tyrosine phosphatase (IA2), and insulin. The autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells is thought to be the primary cause of type 1 diabetes. The presence of these autoantibodies provides early evidence of autoimmune disease activity, and their measurement can be useful in assisting the physician with the prediction, diagnosis, and management of patients with diabetes.
Optimal range: 5 - 34 ng/mL
Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 is a member of the family of structurally homologous proteins (= those with a common evolutionary origin) that specifically binds and modulates the activities of IGF-1 and IGF-2.
Serum levels of IGFBP-1 exhibit considerable diurnal variation (= the variations occur in response to circadian rhythms) with levels highest early in the morning and lowest in the evening. Serum IGFBP-1 levels are controlled by insulin with the postprandial increase (= after a meal) in insulin levels producing a four- to fivefold decrease in IGFBP-1 levels relative to fasting levels.
Optimal range: 0.3 - 13.4 ng/mL
Leptin is a hormone that is produced by your body’s fat cells. Leptin is an adipocyte-derived hormone essential for normal body weight regulation.
Optimal range: 0.27 - 0.9 ng/mL , 0.86 - 2.86 nmol/L
Progesterone is present in men but at a much lower level than found in premenopausal women. Progesterone is not only a female hormone. Although in females it is responsible for protecting the unborn child from rejection during pregnancy, progesterone performs various other functions in both men and women. Progesterone is the precursor to other hormones, including testosterone, the sex hormone that emphasizes male characteristics.
Optimal range: 0.3 - 50.6 nmol/L , 0.09 - 15.91 ng/mL
Progesterone plays an important role in preparing the uterus for pregnancy. Levels of progesterone rise with pregnancy, and rise even higher if there are twins. Imbalances of progesterone are linked with health challenges in both men and women.
Optimal range: 3 - 30 ng/mL
Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that causes breast development in women and milk production in pregnant women. Prolactin does not have known biological function in men.
Optimal range: 0.167 - 5.38 ng/mL/hr
Renin is an enzyme produced by the kidney that can raise blood pressure levels. The renin activity plasma test helps your doctor determine whether or not your high blood pressure is due to poor kidney health.
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Celiac Comprehensive Panel
Celiac disease is caused by an immune response to gluten in genetically sensitive individuals. The diagnosis is largely based on a biopsy of the small intestine, but serologic tests also help support a diagnosis and may assist identification of patients who may require biopsy.
Optimal range: 0 - 19 Units
Detection of gliadin antibodies aids in the diagnosis and monitoring of certain gluten-sensitive enteropathies, such as celiac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis.
Optimal range: 0 - 19 Units
Detection of gliadin antibodies aids in the diagnosis and monitoring of certain gluten-sensitive enteropathies, such as celiac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Positive / Negative
Celiac disease is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory disorder with multi-systemic manifestations, both gastrointestinal and nongastrointestinal. In genetically susceptible individuals, ingestion of gluten can cause inflammation and damage to the small intestine mucosa. Celiac disease has an incidence of 1:100 in the United States.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Positive / Negative
Celiac disease is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory disorder with multi-systemic manifestations, both gastrointestinal and nongastrointestinal. In genetically susceptible individuals, ingestion of gluten can cause inflammation and damage to the small intestine mucosa. Celiac disease has an incidence of 1:100 in the United States.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 Units
This test looks for certain antibodies in your blood that may mean you have celiac disease, an autoimmune disease.
Presence of the tissue transglutaminase (tTG) IgA antibody is associated with gluten-sensitive enteropathies such as celiac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis.
Optimal range: 0 - 3 U/mL , 0.00 - 100.00 ug/g
A tissue transglutaminase IgA (tTg-IgA) test is used to help doctors diagnose celiac disease or to see how well people with the condition are doing.
Optimal range: 0 - 5 U/mL
A tissue transglutaminase IgA (tTg-IgA) test is used to help doctors diagnose celiac disease or to see how well people with the condition are doing.
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Lyme Testing
Let’s look at the two different ways to test for Lyme disease first:
The two most common diagnostic tests for Lyme are the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the Western blot. Both of these blood tests measure the presence of antibodies that form in your body if you are infected with Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacterium that causes Lyme.
According to the International Lyme and Associated Diseases Society (ILADS), the tests are not always reliable to make a definitive diagnosis of Lyme. Both the ELISA and Western Blot are indirect tests, since they measure an antibody’s response to the infection, not the infection itself. However, it can take weeks to generate enough antibodies to be detected by these tests. As a result, a blood test may give false negative results even if you are infected with Lyme.
ELISA – This is the screening test used when Lyme disease is first suspected. It measures the levels of antibodies against Lyme bacteria. According to the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, if the test proves negative for the antibodies, no further test is recommended. If the ELISA is positive or unclear, a second test is recommended to confirm the disease. However, the ELISA is falsely negative nearly 50% of the time. Sadly, many people are never tested beyond this point and are told they do not have Lyme disease when in fact they may be infected.
WESTERN BLOT – This test is run as a second-stage to confirm a positive ELISA result. It also tests for antibodies, however it reports reactivity against a panel of 10 different proteins found on the Lyme bacteria. According to the CDC, 5 of the bands must be positive for an overall positive, reportable Western blot test result.
This is generally considered the most reliable test currently available (although it is estimated to be only 80% accurate even at the best labs). Many doctors will not consider using this test unless the ELISA is positive, thus missing an important diagnostic tool.
Some Lyme specialists and scientists believe that there are five very specific bands on the Western blot test that are highly indicative of Lyme disease, band numbers 23, 31, 34, 39 and 93.
If any of these bands are positive and the patient is experiencing symptoms of Lyme disease, they may feel treatment is warranted.
What are the symptoms of Lyme disease?
Lyme disease symptoms are wide-ranging, with more than a hundred different symptoms recorded. Symptoms can also change over time, as the bacteria spreads throughout the body. To make things more confusing, Lyme disease symptoms will also vary from patient-to-patient. Lyme disease can mimic hundreds of other conditions since its symptoms mirror many medical problems such as multiple sclerosis, arthritis, chronic fatigue syndrome or lupus, and is sometimes known as “The Great Imitator” because of this.
Symptoms can play a key role in diagnosing Lyme disease. Due to the lack of an accurate diagnostic test, many patients are diagnosed based on a combination symptoms and diagnostic testing. This makes it extremely important for patients to keep track of all the symptoms they experience, to share with their healthcare provider. Lyme disease symptoms can vary based on stage of the disease (early, late, post-treatment, or chronic) and if other tick-borne infections are present and can change over time.
Symptoms in acute Lyme disease:
Acute Lyme disease (aka: early localized LD) occurs days to weeks after the initial tick bite and infection, in which the bacteria have not yet spread from the site of infection in the skin.
The most common symptoms in acute (aka: early localized) Lyme disease are the ones people are most familiar with. Because they are symptoms often shared with other illnesses, however, it’s important to recognize that they could mean Lyme and you should see a Lyme-treating physician right away.
- Erythema migrans rash or EM rash. This rash begins at the site of the tick bite about a week after the bite, and gradually expands.
Note: The center of the rash may clear, giving the rash the appearance of a “bulls-eye.” Rashes may take on many different shapes and not all rashes will have a bulls-eye appearance. There can be multiple rashes on the body. While a rash is characteristic of Lyme disease, many people will not develop a rash at all.
- Fever
- Fatigue
- Aches
- Chills
- Swollen lymph nodes
- Other flu-like symptoms
Symptoms in early disseminated Lyme disease:
Early disseminated Lyme disease occurs days to months after infection, in which the bacteria have begun to spread. There is a wide range of possible symptoms at this stage, including:
- Severe headaches and neck stiffness
- Arthritis, especially in the knees or other large joints
- Muscle aches and pains
- Heart palpitations or shortness of breath (Lyme carditis)
- Facial paralysis on one or both sides (also known as Bell’s palsy)
- Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet
- Extreme fatigue
Symptoms in late stage Lyme disease:
Late stage Lyme disease, which can include post-treatment, chronic, and neurological, occurs months to years after infection, in which the bacteria have spread throughout the body.
The symptoms of late disseminated disease are similar to those of early disseminated disease, but may be more extensive, more severe, and longer lasting. Late symptoms may also include:
- neurologic features including vertigo or dizziness,
- difficulty sleeping
- mental fogginess
- difficulty following conversations
- difficulty processing information
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 18 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 23 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 23 KD (IGM) and hence is a IgM antibody marker. IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection. IgG antibodies in contrast are a sign of an older infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 28 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 30 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 39 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 39 KD (IGM) and hence is a IgM antibody marker. IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection. IgG antibodies in contrast are a sign of an older infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
The 41 KD band is often found on the Western blot. A recent study looked at the banding patterns of patients with chronic Lyme disease and healthy controls from the inner city of New York who have never had Lyme disease. They found that a large percentage of the healthy controls tested positive on the 41kd band.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 41 KD (IGM) and hence is a IgM antibody marker. IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection. IgG antibodies in contrast are a sign of an older infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 45 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 58 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 66 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
This particular marker is called 93 KD (IGG) Band and hence is a IgG antibody marker. IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. In contrast, IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection.
IgM antibodies usually disappear after eight weeks post-exposure.
IgG remains in the serum for a very long time.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.003125 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.01 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.003125 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.01 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 1 %
Borrelia burgdorferi is spirochete class bacterium. B. burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. burgdorferi sensu lato, B. burgdorferi afzelii and B. burgdorferi garinii spirochetes enter the human body through tick bites.
Mixed with tick saliva, Borrelia travels through the circulation and enters different tissues. In some untreated cases, symptoms of pathogenic invasion have involved neurologic, cardiac, or joint disorders. Borrelia pathogenesis can break the blood-brain barrier, which allows invasion of the central nervous system, resulting in neuroborreliosis.
Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (B.b.s.l.) with the following subspecies:
- USA: Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (B.b.s.s.), Borrelia andersonii, Borrelia americanum, B. carolinensis, B. bissettii, B. myamotoi
- Europe: Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia garinii, B. spielmanii, B. valaisiana, B. lusitaniae, B. bavariensis
- Asia: Borrelia japonica, B. rutdi, B. tanukii, B. sinica, B. yangtze
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Optimal range: 60 - 360 uL
Optimal range: 2 - 17 %
The CD57 test is offered in some clinical laboratories and is being used by some health practitioners to evaluate and follow patients diagnosed with chronic Lyme disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
Cytomegalovirus is a common virus that usually causes no or only mild symptoms. Cytomegalovirus testing detects antibodies in the blood that the body produces in response to the infection or detects CMV directly.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
EBV-VCA, IgG is an antibody (protein) that is produced by the body in an immune response to an Epstein-Barr virus antigen.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 index
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
IgG antibodies are a sign of an older infection. IgM antibodies in contrast reflect a relatively recent infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 index
Two types of antibodies are detected in the Western blot test.
IgM antibodies reflect a relatively recent infection. IgG antibodies in contrast are a sign of an older infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.8 index
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 index
The two most common diagnostic tests for Lyme are the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the Western blot. Both of these blood tests measure the presence of antibodies that form in your body if you are infected with Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacterium that causes Lyme. This marker is part of the ELISA assay.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.91 ISR
Optimal range: 0 - 0.91 index
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
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Candida IgA, IgM, IgG Blood Test
This candida test is used to screen for antibodies the body develops in response to Systemic Candidiasis or Candida. Candida is another name for yeast, a fungus which is normally found in small amounts in the body. The immune system normally keeps Candida under control but in cases where a person is sick or taking antibiotics the yeast may spread, becoming a potentially dangerous infection. This candida test looks for 3 antibody types including Iga, IgM and IgG.
Optimal range: 0 - 9 %
IgA antibodies: this type is normally found in the mucous secretions. It plays a major role in local immunity; and, constitutes 15 to 20% of all human immunoglobulins. It is the major class of antibodies found in our seromucous secretions. When the IgA levels against the candida are high, they reflect high levels of mucosal epithelial, trachea-bronchial, genital and urinary candida infections.
Blood testing for Candida (“yeast” infection) IgG, IgM, and IgA antibodies indicate past or present infection with this common fungus.
This test is used to detect systemic candidiasis. Candida normally occurs in the mouth, vagina, or gastrointestinal tract. This test is qualitative, meaning if candida antibodies are found, a candida infection is actively occurring now or has occurred in the past.
The candida antibodies test results can help you detect an ongoing candida infection and treat it as early as possible.
When you test all three antibodies, you are helping your doctor make the most accurate diagnosis.
Optimal range: 0 - 29 %
IgG Antibodies: this is the most commonly formed antibody. It is usually released upon a secondary exposure to the antigen. This type of antibody can reflect either an ongoing or a previous infection. It usually comes in a secondary stage. When the body first gets exposed to a certain antigen (primary exposure), it releases another kind of antibodies. When these decrease in number, following a secondary exposure, the body will start releasing IgG. This kind of antibody plays a major role in the phagocytic process that aims at eliminating antigens from our system.
IgG antibodies are predominant immunoglobulins; and, are found everywhere in our fluids: in both intra- and extravascular fluids. When a person becomes infected, these type of antibodies may remain in your system for many years, even after the infection is eradicated.
Optimal range: 0 - 9 %
IgM antibodies: this type is the first antibody released, following any first-time exposure to a certain antigen. Once formed, it activates the compliment and initiate the phagocytic system to help the body getting rid of invading antigens. IgM are specific to our intravascularly tissues. They are the most predominant immunoglobulins released upon any early infection. If the body gets re-infected with the same pathogen, the IgM levels will no longer be as elevated as in early infections. The body will then release IgG’s antibodies instead.
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Babesiosis
Babesiosis is a malaria-like parasitic disease caused by infection with Babesia, a genus of Apicomplexa. Human babesiosis is an uncommon but emerging disease in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States and parts of Europe, and sporadic throughout the rest of the world.
Optimal range: 0 - 40 titer
Optimal range: 0 - 20 titer
Optimal range: 0 - 40 titer
Optimal range: 0 - 20 titer
Optimal range: 0 - 40 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 20 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.01 Positive / Negative
Optimal range: 0 - 40 Units
Babesiosis is an infection caused by the parasite Babesia microti. The infection is acquired by contact with Ixodes ticks carrying the parasite.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 Units
Babesiosis is an infection caused by the parasite Babesia microti. The infection is acquired by contact with Ixodes ticks carrying the parasite.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.0039 Units
WA1, also known as Babesia duncani, has been associated with symptoms similar to those caused by Babesia microti. Little, if any, crossreactivity occurs between Babesia microti and WA1.
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Infectious Disease Profile
Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver. The condition can be self-limiting or can progress to fibrosis (scarring), cirrhosis or liver cancer. Hepatitis viruses are the most common cause of hepatitis in the world but other infections, toxic substances (e.g. alcohol, certain drugs), and autoimmune diseases can also cause hepatitis.
There are 5 main hepatitis viruses, referred to as types A, B, C, D and E. These 5 types are of greatest concern because of the burden of illness and death they cause and the potential for outbreaks and epidemic spread. In particular, types B and C lead to chronic disease in hundreds of millions of people and, together, are the most common cause of liver cirrhosis and cancer.
Hepatitis A and E are typically caused by ingestion of contaminated food or water. Hepatitis B, C and D usually occur as a result of parenteral contact with infected body fluids. Common modes of transmission for these viruses include receipt of contaminated blood or blood products, invasive medical procedures using contaminated equipment and for hepatitis B transmission from mother to baby at birth, from family member to child, and also by sexual contact.
Optimal range: 0.6 - 2.4 mg/L
Because Beta-2 Microglobulin is increased with blood cell cancers, it may be useful as a tumor marker. Though it can be used to assess kidney function as well.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is a distinctive serological marker of acute or chronic hepatitis B infection. HBsAg is the first antigen to appear following infection with HBV and is generally detected 1-10 weeks after the onset of clinical symptoms. HBsAg assays are routinely used to diagnose suspected HBV infection and monitor the status of infected individuals to determine whether the infection has resolved or the patient has become a chronic carrier of the virus.
Optimal range: 0 - 15 IU/ml
The viral load of hepatitis C refers to the amount of virus present in the bloodstream. The quantitative HCV RNA tests measure the amount of hepatitis C virus in the blood. The result will be an exact number, such as "1,215,422 IU/L." Many people refer to the quantitative measurement as the hepatitis C "viral load."
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
What is hepatitis A?
Hepatitis A is a result of infection with the hepatitis A virus. Hepatitis A is a contagious liver disease that can range in severity from a mild illness lasting a few weeks to a severe illness causing liver failure. Most people infected with the virus get well within 6 months. However, hepatitis A can be serious for older people and people who already have liver disease such as hepatitis B or C.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Anti-HBc IgM increases rapidly, peaks during the acute infection stage of HBV infection, and then falls to a relatively low level as the patient recovers or becomes a chronic carrier. Anti-HBc IgM is useful in the diagnosis of acute HBV infection even when HBsAg concentrations are below the sensitivity of the diagnostic assay. The presence of anti-HBc IgM and anti-HBc IgG is characteristic of acute infection, while the presence of anti-HBc IgG without anti-HBc IgM is characteristic of chronic or recovered stages of HBV infection. The use of other viral markers such as HBsAg, anti-HBs, and anti-HBc total to differentiate acute from chronic hepatitis B is inconclusive because most of these markers are alsoseen in chronic infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
Hep B Core Ab, Tot [aka Total antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc)] appears at the onset of symptoms in acute hepatitis B, is a measure of both IgM and IgG, and persists for life. The presence of total anti-HBc indicates previous or ongoing infection with hepatitis B virus in an undefined time frame. People who have immunity to hepatitis B from a vaccine do not develop anti-HBc.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 %
A blood test, called an HCV antibody test, is used to find out if someone has ever been infected with the hepatitis C virus. The HCV antibody test, sometimes called the anti-HCV test, looks for antibodies to the hepatitis C virus in blood. Antibodies are chemicals released into the bloodstream when someone gets infected. Test results can take anywhere from a few days to a few weeks to come back.
Most people who get infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) develop a chronic, or lifelong, infection. Left untreated, chronic hepatitis C can cause serious health problems, including liver damage, cirrhosis, liver cancer, and even death. People can live without symptoms or feeling sick, so testing is the only way to know if you have hepatitis C. Getting tested is important to find out if you are infected so you can get lifesaving treatment that can cure hepatitis C.
Optimal range: 0 - 1 index
Hepatitis A is a viral infection of the liver. This tests for the presence of hepatitis A antibodies. Elevated levels reflect immunity either through previous vaccination or exposure to the illness.
Measures both IgG and IgM forms of the antibody, but does not differentiate between these two forms. Hepatitis A antibody of IgG type is indicative of old infection and is found in almost 50% of adults.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.5 index
Optimal range: 9.9 - 100 mIU/ml
Presence of antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-HBs) is used to determine immune status to HBV or disease progression in individuals infected with HBV. Anti-HBs levels can be measured to determine if vaccination is needed, or following a vaccination regimen, to determine if protective immunity has been achieved.
- Anti-HBs usually can be detected several weeks to several months after HBsAg is no longer found, and it may persist for many years or for life after acute infection has been resolved.
- It may disappear in some patients, with only antibody to core remaining.
- People with this antibody are not overtly infectious.
- Presence of the antibody without the presence of the antigen is evidence for immunity from reinfection, with virus of the same subtype.
Optimal range: 0 - 7.5 index
The hepatitis B surface antibody test (HBsAb), looks for antibodies that your immune system makes in response to the surface protein of the hepatitis B virus.
The presence of anti-HBs is generally interpreted as indicating recovery and immunity from hepatitis B virus infection.
Anti-HBs also develops in a person who has been successfully vaccinated against hepatitis B. Among vaccine responders who completed a vaccine series, anti-HBs levels can decline over time, however the majority are still immune and will mount a response when exposed to HBV.
< 10 mIU/mL is considered nonreactive for antibodies agains Hepatitis B surface antigen.
>= 10 mIU/mL is considered reactive for antibodies against Heptitis B surface antigen
Optimal range: 0 - 0 %
The hepatitis B surface antibody test (HBsAb), looks for antibodies that your immune system makes in response to the surface protein of the hepatitis B virus.
Optimal range: 0 - 1 index
This assay can be used in conjunction with other serological and clinical information to diagnose individuals with acute or chronic hepatitis B infection. This assay may also be used to screen for hepatitis B infection in pregnant women to identify neonates who are at risk of acquiring hepatitis B during the perinatal period.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.8 index
Optimal range: 0 - 1 index
This test looks for HIV infection in your blood or saliva.
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. About 1 in 5 people who are infected with HIV don't know it because they may not have symptoms. HIV comes in 2 forms:
HIV-1. This type is found worldwide.
HIV-2. This type is mainly found in western Africa. But it has spread to the U.S.
This test is one of several tests that look for HIV infection. Some tests take a few days for results to come back. Rapid HIV tests can give your results in about 20 minutes. Getting an early diagnosis of HIV is important because you can start treatment early and also take steps to keep from spreading the virus to others.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
The rapid plasma reagin (RPR) is a test used to screen for syphilis. The RPR test measures IgM and IgG antibodies to lipoidal material released from damaged host cells as well as to lipoprotein-like material, and possibly cardiolipin released from the treponemes.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 index
Optimal range: 0 - 1.3 index
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus (single-stranded RNA) that primarily infects birds but can also infect humans and horses.
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Zika Virus
Zika virus disease is caused by a virus transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes. People with Zika virus disease can have symptoms including mild fever, skin rash, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise or headache. These symptoms normally last for 2-7 days.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 .
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
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Lifestyle Dashboard
Optimal range: 0 - 1.5 drinks
Optimal range: 80 - 120 mg/dL
Optimal range: 13 - 16 hrs
Optimal range: 7 - 10 scale
Optimal range: 20 - 100 min
Optimal range: 30 - 60 min
Optimal range: 70 - 99 mg/dL
Optimal range: 160 - 180 lbs
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Complete Blood Count (CBC)
The complete blood count (CBC) is one of the most frequently ordered blood tests. It is essential to know that blood consists of two major parts: plasma and cellular elements. The plasma is the part of the blood that is liquid, which allows the blood to flow smoothly. The other part of the blood consists of blood cells.
The blood cells are white blood cells (WBC), red blood cells (RBC), and platelets. Each of these types of cells carries out specific and vital functions.
The complete blood count test measures the quantity of all the different types of cells in the blood. It also provides some valuable information on other parameters related to each type of blood cell.
How does a complete blood count (CBC) test is made? Blood is collected by inserting a needle into a vein and allowing it to flow into a tube. Later the blood sample gets to the laboratory, and the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets get counted. The CBC is used to test for, diagnose, and monitor many different conditions.
The CBC test gets a lot of information from your blood sample:
Optimal range: 138 - 151 g/L
Hemoglobin (Hb) is the iron-containing oxygen transportation protein in red blood cells. It's rate of binding oxygen depends on the number oxygen molecules already bound.
Optimal range: 37.5 - 51 %
A hematocrit test (Hct) is a simple blood test that measures the percentage of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells are important because they carry oxygen throughout your body. Test results showing low or high hematocrit levels may be signs of blood disorders or other medical conditions.
Optimal range: 13 - 17.7 g/dL , 130.00 - 177.00 g/L
What is hemoglobin?
Hemoglobin is the main component of red blood cells. Hemoglobin (abbreviation: Hb) is a red substance made of iron and protein.
What's the function of hemoglobin?
- In the blood, it carries oxygen to the cells in the body from the lungs.
- Hemoglobin also carries carbon dioxide away from the cells to the lungs, later exhaled from the body. Carbon dioxide is a colorless and odorless gas present in small amounts in the air. It is a result of metabolism in the body. Metabolism is the chemical action in cells that release energy from nutrients or use energy to create other substances.
What are normal reference ranges for hemoglobin?
Normal hemoglobin levels differ depending on several factors, including age, sex at birth, hormonal supplementation, altitude of residence as well as presence of different hemoglobin types that impact hemoglobin turnover and affinity for oxygen binding.
Like other blood values, slightly high or low levels of hemoglobin may be normal for some people. Still, suppose you are falling too far out of the normal range. In that case, your doctor will most likely order more comprehensive testing to determine the cause.
Optimal range: 75 - 95 fL/red cell , 75.00 - 95.00 fl
Mean cell volume indicates the average volume of red blood cells in the body. It is often measured as a part of the red blood cell indices in a comprehensive blood count test. The results of the red blood cell indices will tell a healthcare professional whether or not anemia is present and, if so, what type it is.
Optimal range: 26.6 - 33 pg , 26.60 - 33.00 pg/cell , 1.65 - 2.05 fmol
Mean corpuscular (or cell) hemoglobin (abbreviated as MCH) is an estimate of the amount of hemoglobin in an average red blood cell. Hemoglobin is a substance in the blood that carries oxygen to the cells in the body from the lungs.
Optimal range: 31.5 - 35.7 g/dL , 19.59 - 22.20 mmol/L , 315.00 - 357.00 g/L
MCHC stands for mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. MCHC is part of the red cell indices, together with MCH and MCV. Those parameters reflect the size and hemoglobin content of red cells. They have traditionally been used to aid in the differential diagnosis of anemia.
Optimal range: 79 - 97 fl
Mean corpuscular volume indicates the average volume of red blood cells in the body. It is often measured as a part of the red blood cell indices in a comprehensive blood count test. The results of the red blood cell indices will tell a healthcare professional whether or not anemia is present and, if so, what type it is.
Optimal range: 7.5 - 11.5 fl
Mean platelet volume (MPV) is a calculation that indicates the average size of platelets in the blood. This measurement is typically done during a comprehensive blood count. An abnormal MPV is not, in it of itself, an indication of disease or disorder. MPV scores are compared against other types of blood counts to give a healthcare professional more information about a potential medical issue.
Optimal range: 150 - 450 µl , 150.00 - 450.00 x10^9/L , 150.00 - 450.00 x10/9/l
Other names: Platelets, Thrombocyte Count
What are platelets?
Platelets (aka thrombocytes) are small, colorless cell fragments in our blood that form clots and stop or prevent bleeding.
Where are platelets made?
Platelets are made in our bone marrow, the sponge-like tissue inside our bones. Bone marrow contains stem cells that develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
What is the main function of platelets?
Platelets form clots when there’s damage to a blood vessel. For example, if you cut your finger, platelets mix with coagulation factors/clotting factors (proteins in the blood). Together, they form a “glue” that stops the bleeding.
Optimal range: 9.2 - 16.7 fl
This marker can give you additional information about your platelets and the cause of a high or low platelet count. Larger platelets are usually younger platelets that have been released earlier than normal from the bone marrow, while smaller platelets may be older and have been in circulation for a few days.
Optimal range: 16 - 41.3 %
Platelet-large cell ratio (P-LCR) is defined as the percentage of platelets that exceed the normal value of platelet volume of 12 fL in the total platelet count.
Platelet size has been shown to reflect platelet activity; therefore MPV (=Mean Platelet Volume) and P-LCR are a simple and easy method of indirect assessment of platelet stimulation.
Optimal range: 11.7 - 15.4 %
The RDW value tells you whether enough of your red blood cells are of normal size and shape.
Why is this important?
The red blood cells are usually flat and lenticular (disc-shaped) with a diameter of around 7.5 µm (micrometer).
Blood cells must squeeze through the body’s smallest blood vessels, the above described capillaries, to do their job, but capillaries often become narrower than the cells in their normal disc shape. Capillaries can be as small as 4 µm in diameter. So the cells must deform and “curl up” to fit through those capillaries. Remember a normal red blood cell is around 7.5 µm in diameter.
Only when this process of “squeezing” through capillaries can happen, the supply of oxygen is guaranteed throughout the whole body.
Some red blood cells are however not optimally formed. To a certain extent this is normal as there are 2 million red blood cells formed per second. Usually there are around 85% to 89% of red blood cells developed properly.
Optimal range: 39 - 46 fl
Red cell distribution width (abbreviated as RDW) is a measurement of the amount that red blood cells vary in size. Red blood cells help carry oxygen in the blood.
Optimal range: 4.14 - 5.8 cells/mcL , 4.14 - 5.80 x10^12/L , 4.14 - 5.80 x10/12/l
Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs so it can be exhaled. Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. These cells are also known as erythrocytes.
Anemia is a condition that results from a decrease in the number of RBCs. Elevated RBC counts are seen in other conditions where there is low oxygen levels, certain drugs, kidney disease, or bone marrow overproduction. If your RBC count results are abnormal, additional tests are usually done to diagnose the cause of the high or low level of red blood cells.
A CBC measures two other components of your red blood cells:
- hemoglobin: oxygen-carrying protein
- hematocrit: percentage of red blood cells in your blood
Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
Optimal range: 3.4 - 10.8 x10E3/µL , 3.40 - 10.80 x10^9/L , 3.40 - 10.80 x10/9/l
White blood cells, often called leukocytes, are three types of cells found in the blood, along with red blood cells and platelets. Specifically, the white blood cell family contains five members: monocytes, lymphocytes, basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils. Together, these five cells act as our body’s primary immune system, responding to irritants and invaders. All blood cells are made in the bone marrow and then pass into the bloodstream. Leukocyte levels in the body are assessed through a blood differential test (also called a white blood cell differential) as a part of a complete blood count. This test can detect abnormal or immature cells and diagnose an infection, leukemia, or an autoimmune disorder. A healthcare professional may order a blood differential when someone has general signs and symptoms of infection and/or inflammation, such as:
- Fever, chills
- Body aches, pains
- Headache
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Catecholamine blood test
What are Catecholamines?
Catecholamines are a group of similar hormones released into the bloodstream in response to physical or emotional stress.
Catecholamine testing measures the amounts of these hormones in the urine and/or blood. Urine testing is recommended over blood testing.
Functions of Catecholamines:
The above functions only increase during and shortly after a stressful situation and the broken down catecholamines are then eliminated from the body through the urine. However a group of rare nervous system tumors (such as pheochromocytom, paragangliomas or neuroblastoma) can produce large amounts of these catecholamines and cause havoc inside the body, such as:
Optimal range: 242 - 1125 pg/mL
Catecholamines are a group of similar hormones released into the bloodstream in response to physical or emotional stress.
The primary catecholamines are:
Optimal range: 0 - 20 pg/mL
Dopamine is widely distributed throughout the central nervous system and is involved in the control of movement.
Optimal range: 0 - 95 pg/mL
Epinephrine, often better known as adrenaline, is synthesized from norepinephrine in both the CNS and the adrenal medulla. Much like norepinephrine, this excitatory neurotransmitter helps regulate muscle contraction, heart rate, glycogen breakdown, blood pressure and more, and is heavily involved in a stress response. Elevated levels of epinephrine are often associated with hyperactivity, ADHD, anxiety, sleep issues, and low adrenal function. Over time, chronic stress and stimulation can deplete epinephrine stores leading to difficulty concentrating, fatigue, depression, insufficient cortisol production, chronic stress, poor recovery from illness, dizziness and more.
Optimal range: 217 - 1109 pg/mL
Norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline) is one of the catecholamines. Catecholamines are hormones made by the adrenal glands. The three catecholamines are epinephrine (adrenalin), norepinephrine, and dopamine.
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Organic Acids, Plasma
Organic Acids, Urine assay, is the preferred test when screening for inherited disorders of metabolism. This plasma test is not as sensitive and will only detect the organic acids listed.
Optimal range: 10 - 30 umol/L
2-Hydroxy-3-methylpentanoic acid or 2-hydroxy-3-methylvaleric acid (HMVA) is an organic acid generated by L-isoleucine metabolism. It is derived from the reduction of 2-Keto-3-methylvaleric acid (KMVA), possibly through the action of a lactate dehydrogenase.
Optimal range: 20 - 75 umol/L
2-Ketoisocaproic Acid is a B-Complex Vitamin Marker (Leucine catabolism).
2-Ketoisocaproic Acid is an abnormal metabolite that arises from the incomplete breakdown of branched-chain amino acids.
Optimal range: 3 - 20 umol/L
AKA: alpha-Ketoisovaleric acid
Alpha-Ketoisovaleric acid is an abnormal metabolite that arises from the incomplete breakdown of branched-chain amino acids.
Optimal range: 0 - 30 umol/L
3-Oh-Butyric Acid is a metabolic marker of blood sugar utilization and insulin function.
Optimal range: 0 - 66 umol/L
Acetoacetic acid (=acetoacetate) is a ketone body and a weak Beta-keto acid produced from acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrial matrix of hepatocytes.
Optimal range: 0 - 100 umol/L
Citric acid, cis-aconitic acid, and isocitric acid are the first three metabolites in the Krebs Citric Acid energy production cycle, which operates in the mitochondria of your cells.
Optimal range: 600 - 2600 umol/L
Formed from pyruvate in anaerobic or oxygen-starved (hypoxic) conditions to allow for ongoing production of ATP.
Optimal range: 20 - 140 umol/L
Pyruvic Acid feeds into the citric acid cycle & converts into acetyl CoA. Pyruvate is formed from carbohydrate via glucose or glycogen & secondarily from fats (glycerol) & glycogenic amino acids. Pyruvic acid is also formed from lactic acid with O2 and zinc.
Optimal range: 16 - 25 umol/L
Succinate (or succinic acid) is an important metabolite that is involved in several chemical processes in the body.
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Ehrlichia Ab Panel
Human ehrlichiosis is a tick-borne disease caused by rickettsial-like agents. Two forms, human monocytic ehrlichiosis (HME) and human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE), have been described. HME is often referred to as "spotless" or rashless Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and has been reported in various regions of the United States. The causative agent of HME has been identified as Ehrlichia chaffeensis. Infected individuals produce specific antibodies to Ehrlichia chaffeensis which can be detected by an immunofluorescent antibody (IFA) test.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.015625 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.05 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.015625 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.05 Units
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H pylori, IgM, IgG, IgA Ab
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a type of bacteria that infects the digestive system. Many people with H. pylori will never have symptoms of infection. But for others, the bacteria can cause a variety of digestive disorders.
These can include:
- gastritis (inflammation of the stomach),
- peptic ulcers (sores in the stomach, small intestine, or esophagus),
- and certain types of stomach cancer.
There are different ways to test for an H. pylori infection. They include blood, stool, and breath tests. If you are having digestive symptoms, testing and treatment may help prevent serious complications.
Other names: H. pylori stool antigen, H. pylori breath tests, urea breath test, rapid urease test (RUT) for H. pylori, H. pylori culture
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 Units
The H. pylori (Helicobacter pylori) breath test is a simple and safe test used to detect an active H. pylori infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
What is H. pylori?
Helicobacter pylori (or H. pylori) is a bacteria that can infect the stomach or duodenum (first part of the small intestine). If left untreated, H. pylori bacteria can cause gastritis (an inflammation or irritation of the stomach lining) and duodenal or gastric ulcers. In addition, infection with H. pylori increases the risk of other diseases and is also a risk factor for gastric cancer.
Accurate detection of H. pylori is the first step toward curing stomach and intestinal ulcers, and preventing the development of more serious gastrointestinal problems.
Optimal range: 0 - 9 Units
Optimal range: 0 - 0.8 U/mL
Optimal range: 0 - 9 Units
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Allergen Profile, Mold
This test detect possible allergic responses to various substances in the environment and evaluate for hay fever, asthma, atopic eczema, and respiratory allergy.
If you have more than a few of the following symptoms and there has been mold or water damage in any of your environments (E.g. home, work, school), you may want to talk to a mold illness experienced doctor:
Allergic Reactions:
- Nasal congestion
- Sinusitis
- Red and watery eyes
- Mucus and puss in eyes
- Skin rash/irritation
- Itching
- Swelling
Skin:
- Skin sensitivity
- Itching
- Bruising
Mouth:
- Receding gums
- Sensitive to hot/cold
Brain Function:
- Memory issues
- Mental confusion/fuzziness
- Concentration issues
- Attention issues
Neurological:
- Vision problems
- Decrease in hearing
- Numbness/tingling
- Dizziness
- Tremors
Mood:
- Anxiety
- Depression
- Irritability
Respiratory:
- Cough
- Shortness of breath
- Chest tightness
Pain:
- Headache
- Migraines
- Aching joints
- Muscle pain
Digestion:
- Gastrointestinal issues
- Nausea
- Irritable bowel syndrome
- Mucus in stools
General:
- Fatigue
- Chronic Fatigue
- Insomnia
- Laryngitis [=inflammation of the larynx (voice box)]
- Fibromyalgia (widespread musculoskeletal pain)
- Vasculitis (inflammation of your blood vessels)
- Angioedema (swelling of areas of tissue under the skin, sometimes affecting the face and throat.)
- Hair loss
- Adrenal/thyroid issues
- Nosebleeds
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Alternaria alternata is one of the most common fungi associated with asthma.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus causes allergic diseases, respiratory illnesses, and bloodstream infections.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
It is a commonly encountered species in wet buildings. It is both a soil and leaf fungus.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.99 Units
Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and one of the few species of the Candida genus that cause the infection candidiasis in humans.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.99 Units
Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and one of the few species of the Candida genus that cause the infection candidiasis in humans.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.99 Units
Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and one of the few species of the Candida genus that cause the infection candidiasis in humans.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by yeasts that belong to the genus Candida. There are over 20 species of Candida yeasts that can cause infection in humans, the most common of which is Candida albicans.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Cladosporium, a well known trigger for asthmatic attacks, is one of the most widespread molds.
Cladosporium includes about 40 species naturally found in soil, on decaying plant material and as plant pathogens.
In an indoor environment, Cladosporium spp. occur as secondary wall colonizers, appearing after the primary ones such as Penicillium species, Aspergillus versicolor and Wallemia sebi. Cladosporiumis very common on wet building material (e.g., gypsum board, acrylic painted walls, wood, wallpaper, carpet and mattress dust, HVAC fans, and wet insulation in mechanical cooling units).
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Epicoccum can colonize an extremely wide variety of substrates. It lives in soil all over the world and is often associated with aging or decaying plant material. It is also a phytopathogen, causing leaf spot disease in many plants. It is an agent of food spoilage and has been known to develop on apples, cantaloupes, fresh vegetables, nuts and cereals, rice, wheat, maize, pecans, peanuts, cashews, soybean and frozen or cured meats. Interestingly Epicoccum can also colonize freshwater and marine environments and has been isolated from sediment, sponges, algae and other sea plants.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Members of the genus Fusarium are ubiquitous fungi commonly found in soils and plants.
Fusarium proliferatum can be found on a wide host range as well as pathogenic on various agricultural crops. Fusarium proliferatum is a common pathogen infecting numerous crop plants and occuring in various climatic zones.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Normal soil inhabitant. Found around barns and barnyards where it grows on animal waste.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Penicillium Chrysogenum is a widely studied species of Penicillium that is most famous for being a source of penicillin and several other antibiotics.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Phoma is a very common soil fungus attacking weak or damaged plants. It is frequently isolated from different soils, dead plant tissues and potato. Phoma is frequently found indoors as a contaminator of humid surfaces, in connection with bio-deterioration of painted walls; producing colored spots, often pink or purple, several centimeters in diameter.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Setomelanomma/Helminthosporium almost always occurs seasonally and the spores are released on dry, hot days. Species of Helminthosporium are best known as parasites of cereals and grasses. It is frequently isolated from grains, grasses, sugar cane, soil and textiles.
- Found worldwide, most common in warm areas, especially in the southern U.S.
- Important in the Midwest as it grows on farm crops, especially corn.
- Grain thrashing operations release large quantities.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 kU/L
Together with Alternaria, Stemphylium is considered one of the most important mould allergens in the United States.
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Herpes Testing
An IgG blood test is used to diagnose herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection.
This test does not detect the virus. Rather, it detects the IgG antibodies, or immune proteins, that your body produces in response to the viral infection.
Parts of the IgG protein, like all antibodies, are made by the immune system to attack specific disease-causing organisms (pathogens), like viruses and bacteria. HSV IgG is the type of antibody that is produced when a herpes infection occurs.
An HSV IgG test is typically used to confirm a genital herpes infection. It is not recommended as a general screening test for everyone. But it is recommended for pregnant women who are at risk of having genital herpes. Treatment can reduce the risk of transmission to the baby.
Notes:
- The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) currently advises against HSV testing for people without symptoms. Doing so has not been shown to change sexual behaviors. It also doesn't reduce the rate of herpes transmission.
- It can take three to six weeks from the initial infection before enough IgG is produced to be detected.
IgG vs. IgM:
The IgG test is not the only antibody test used to detect HSV. There's also an HSV immunoglobulin M (IgM) test, which detects IgM.
Unlike IgG antibodies that stay in the body and can be detected for a lifetime, IgM antibodies don't last very long. They usually can only be detected during an active or recent infection.
Another advantage of the IgG test is that it's more accurate when it comes to telling the difference between HSV-1 and HSV-2:
- HSV-1 is the type of herpes primarily associated with cold sores.
- HSV-2 is the type that mainly causes genital herpes.
If you have clinical signs of an infection and your HSV IgG test is negative, repeat the test in about four to six weeks to confirm the results.
An HSV test with a positive (abnormal) IgG result means that you either have or have had an HSV infection at some point. Since a positive result means that your body has built an IgG immune response to HSV, a negative IgG test means that your body has never needed to do so and you have never been infected with HSV.
The results of your HSV blood test will generally be reported as either:
Positive: IgG detected
Negative: IgG not detected
Equivocal: Results unclear
If your test is equivocal, your healthcare provider might consider results of other tests you've had done to make your diagnosis. They might also recommend that you repeat the IgG test after a few weeks.
IgG results may be considered along with IgM results. IgG antibodies take longer to produce but last a lifetime. IgM antibodies are detectable after a few days, but they disappear within a few weeks.
- If you test positive for IgG and IgM, or just IgM, it's likely that you have a new infection.
- If you test positive for IgG but not IgM, you likely have an existing infection that has been around for at least two months.
That said, between 30% and 70% of people with recurrent infections test positive for IgM.
A false-negative result, in which your test result is incorrectly reported as negative for HSV antibodies, can sometimes occur. This happens, for instance, if you have your test within the window period, not allowing enough time to pass after a possible exposure. You may also have a false-positive result, in which the test result incorrectly reads as positive.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 index
Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is a set of two closely related herpesviruses, HHV6-A and HHV6-B. Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) has long been suspected as one trigger for Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.
Optimal range: 0 - 20 index
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 index
Herpes is a common viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). The virus exists as two main types, HSV-1 and HSV-2.
HSV testing identifies the presence of the virus in a sample from a blister, sore or fluid to diagnose an active herpes infection or testing detects antibodies in the blood to determine previous exposure to herpes.
Both HSV-1 and HSV-2 are contagious and periodically cause small fever blisters (vesicles) that break to form open lesions.
HSV-1 primarily causes blisters or "cold sores" around the mouth (non-genital sites).
HSV-2 usually causes lesions around the genital area.
However, both HSV-1 and HSV-2 can affect either the oral or genital areas.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 titer
A herpes IgM (immunoglobulin M) test is a blood test that can detect early herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. Herpes IgM is one of the first types of antibody that appears after infection, so this blood test is the earliest one that can be used to detect herpes.
HSV is a contagious condition that causes sores around the mouth or genitals.
The IgM test does not detect herpes directly. Instead, it looks for IgM, a type of antibody. This is a protein produced by the immune system in response to a herpes infection.
The herpes IgM antibodies can take up to 10 days to develop after a primary infection with the virus.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.91 index
Herpes is a common viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). The virus exists as two main types, HSV-1 and HSV-2.
HSV testing identifies the presence of the virus in a sample from a blister, sore or fluid to diagnose an active herpes infection or testing detects antibodies in the blood to determine previous exposure to herpes.
Both HSV-1 and HSV-2 are contagious and periodically cause small fever blisters (vesicles) that break to form open lesions.
HSV-1 primarily causes blisters or "cold sores" around the mouth (non-genital sites).
HSV-2 usually causes lesions around the genital area.
However, both HSV-1 and HSV-2 can affect either the oral or genital areas.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 titer
Herpes Simplex Virus is a common pathogen of humans. The clinical course of HSV in humans is extremely variable. Primary infection with HSV, either type 1 or 2, is unapparent or subclinical in a majority of cases.
When clinically apparent, HSV infections can range from minimal stomatitis to a fatal generalized infection. Some of the major clinical manifestations of HSV infections are acute gingivostomatitis, recurrent herpes labialis, keratoconjunctivitis, eczema herpeticum, encephalitis, and meningitis.
Generalized infections are normally confined to individuals with immune deficiency, immunosuppressed patients, or newborns.
There are two distinct types of HSV: Types 1 and 2.
HSV-1 and HSV-2 are closely related but they can be separated both serologically and biologically.
HSV-1 is associated with lesions above the waist (encephalitis, stomatitis, eye infections, and, in some cases, of generalized infections).
Optimal range: 0 - 0.1 Units
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Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
To help diagnose infectious mononucleosis (mono); to distinguish between an Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and another illness with similar symptoms.
Please refer to this interpretation chart:
| VCA IgG | VCA IgM | EBNA IgG | Interpretation |
| Negative | Negative | Negative | No previous exposure |
| Positive | Positive | Negative | Recent infection |
| Positive | Negative | Positive | Past infection |
| Positive | Negative | Negative | See note* |
| Positive | Positive | Positive | Past infection |
Note:
*Results indicate infection with EBV at some time (VCA IgG positive). However, the time of the infection cannot be predicted (ie, recent or past) since antibodies to EBNA usually develop after primary infection (recent) or, alternatively, approximately 5% to 10% of patients with EBV never develop antibodies to EBNA (past).
Optimal range: 0 - 18 U/mL
The EBV (Epstein Barr) Nuclear Antigen Antibodies, IgG test looks for a type of antibody which the body typically develops in response to Epstein-Barr Virus.
EBNA antibodies usually appear 2-4 months after infection and persist for the life of the person.
This test is usually performed to establish a past infection with EBV.
Optimal range: 0 - 18 U/mL
EBV-VCA, IgG is an antibody (protein) that is produced by the body in an immune response to an Epstein-Barr virus antigen.
Optimal range: 0 - 36 U/mL
EBV-VCA, IgM is an antibody (protein) that is produced by the body in an immune response to an Epstein-Barr virus antigen.
EBV stands for Epstein-Barr virus.
Epstein-Barr virus is a virus that typically causes a mild to moderate illness. Blood tests for Epstein-Barr virus detect antibodies to EBV in the blood and help establish a diagnosis of EBV infection.
VCA stands for Viral capsid antigen.
– Anti-VCA IgM appears early in EBV infection and usually disappears within four to six weeks.
– Anti-VCA IgG appears in the acute phase of EBV infection, peaks at two to four weeks after onset, declines slightly then persists for the rest of a person’s life.
Optimal range: 0 - 18 U/mL
EBV CAPSID Ag.ab/IgG is an antibody (protein) that is produced by the body in an immune response to an Epstein-Barr virus antigen.
Optimal range: 0 - 36 U/mL
EBV CAPSID Ag.Ab/IgM is an antibody (protein) that is produced by the body in an immune response to an Epstein-Barr virus antigen.
Optimal range: 0 - 9 U/mL
Aid in the diagnosis of acute EBV (infectious mononucleosis) and EBV reactivation in conjunction with other serologic tests. The appearance of IgG antibodies to Early antigen-diffuse [EA(D)] is generally associated with the primary (acute) stage of EBV infection. For most individuals these antibodies are transient and are often undetectable after 6 months.
Optimal range: 0 - 9 U/mL
Aid in the diagnosis of acute EBV (infectious mononucleosis) and EBV reactivation in conjunction with other serologic tests. The appearance of IgG antibodies to Early antigen-diffuse [EA(D)] is generally associated with the primary (acute) stage of EBV infection. For most individuals these antibodies are transient and are often undetectable after 6 months.
Optimal range: 0 - 17.9 U/mL
The EBV (Epstein Barr) Nuclear Antigen Antibodies, IgG test looks for a type of antibody which the body typically develops in response to Epstein-Barr Virus.
EBNA antibodies usually appear 2-4 months after infection and persist for the life of the person. This test is usually performed to establish a past infection with EBV.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 index
The EBV (Epstein Barr) Nuclear Antigen Antibodies, IgG test looks for a type of antibody which the body typically develops in response to Epstein-Barr Virus.
EBNA antibodies usually appear 2-4 months after infection and persist for the life of the person.
This test is usually performed to establish a past infection with EBV.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 index
EBV-VCA, IgG is an antibody (protein) that is produced by the body in an immune response to an Epstein-Barr virus antigen.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 index
EBV-VCA, IgM is an antibody (protein) that is produced by the body in an immune response to an Epstein-Barr virus antigen.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.001 index
The mononuclear spot test or monospot test, a form of the heterophile antibody test, is a rapid test for infectious mononucleosis due to Epstein–Barr virus (EBV).
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Mycoplasma
To detect an active or recent mycoplasma (type of bacteria) infection.
Optimal range: 0 - 100 U/mL
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a small bacterium transmitted via organism-containing droplets.
Optimal range: 0 - 770 U/mL
Mycoplasmas are the smallest free-living microbes known.
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Cytomegalovirus
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a member of the Herpesviridae family of viruses and usually causes asymptomatic infection after which it remains latent, primarily within bone marrow derived cells. Can be similar to primary Epstein-Barr virus infection, with fever, malaise and lymphadenopathy.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.6 U/mL
What is the Cytomegalovirus test?
This test looks for antibodies to cytomegalovirus (CMV), a virus in the herpes family, in your blood.
CMV is so widespread that most people in the U.S. have been infected by the time they reach age 40. But many don't realize it. You can pick up the virus by handling or exchanging bodily fluids, such as saliva, blood, urine, breast milk, and semen. The virus usually causes only a mild illness. But it can do serious harm to unborn children, people with HIV/AIDS, or others with weak immune systems.
Antibodies are germ-fighting molecules that your immune system makes in response to infection. If you have CMV-specific antibodies in your blood, you may have a CMV infection.
Like other herpes family viruses, CMV hides in the body after the first infection and can flare up again. Later infections tend to be milder. In fact, in adults with a healthy immune system, the first infection may not have any symptoms.
Optimal range: 0 - 30 AU/mL
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a member of the Herpesviridae family of viruses and usually causes asymptomatic infection after which it remains latent in patients, primarily within bone marrow derived cells. Primary CMV infection in immunocompetent individuals may manifest as a mononucleosis-type syndrome, similar to primary Epstein-Barr virus infection, with fever, malaise and lymphadenopathy.
CMV is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among bone marrow or solid organ transplant recipients, individuals with AIDS, and other immunosuppressed patients due to virus reactivation or from a newly acquired infection. Infection in these patient populations can affect almost any organ and lead to multiorgan failure. CMV is also responsible for congenital disease among newborns and is one of the TORCH infections (toxoplasmosis, other infections including syphilis, rubella, CMV, and herpes simplex virus).
Optimal range: 0 - 0.89 Units
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common virus that usually causes no symptoms or only mild illness. CMV testing detects antibodies in the blood that the body produces in response to the infection or detects CMV directly.
In the United States, as many as 60% of people have been exposed to CMV at some point in their life. Almost 1 out of every 3 children have been exposed to CMV by age 5 and more than half of adults are exposed to CMV by age 40.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.8 Units
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common virus that usually causes no symptoms or only mild illness. CMV testing detects antibodies in the blood that the body produces in response to the infection or detects CMV directly.
In the United States, as many as 60% of people have been exposed to CMV at some point in their life. Almost 1 out of every 3 children have been exposed to CMV by age 5 and more than half of adults are exposed to CMV by age 40.
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Parvovirus
Fifth disease is a mild rash illness caused by parvovirus B19. It is more common in children than adults. A person usually gets sick with fifth disease within four to 14 days after getting infected with parvovirus B19. This disease, also called erythema infectiosum, got its name because it was fifth in a list of historical classifications of common skin rash illnesses in children.
Signs & Symptoms
The symptoms of fifth disease are usually mild and may include
You can get a rash on your face and body
You may get a red rash on your face called “slapped cheek” rash. This rash is the most recognized feature of fifth disease. It is more common in children than adults.
Some people may get a second rash a few days later on their chest, back, buttocks, or arms and legs. The rash may be itchy, especially on the soles of the feet. It can vary in intensity and usually goes away in seven to 10 days, but it can come and go for several weeks. As it starts to go away, it may look lacy.
You may also have painful or swollen joints
People with fifth disease can also develop pain and swelling in their joints. This is called polyarthropathy syndrome. It is more common in adults, especially women. Some adults with fifth disease may only have painful joints, usually in the hands, feet, or knees, and no other symptoms. The joint pain usually lasts 1 to 3 weeks, but it can last for months or longer. It usually goes away without any long-term problems.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.89 Units
The presence of IgG antibodies only is indicative of past exposure to Parvovirus.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.89 Units
The presence of IgM class antibodies suggests recent infection.
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Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO)
What is small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO)?
SIBO is the accumulation of excessive amount of gut bacteria in the small intestine (at least 100,000 bacteria per ml of fluid). While bacterium naturally exist throughout the digestive tract, with highest concentrations of bacteria in the colon, a healthy individual should have relatively low levels of bacteria present in the small intestine. Any condition which impairs the normal transit or motion of the small intestine can increase the likelihood of getting SIBO, including lack of adequate stomach acid, damage to the intestine by toxins, or a decrease in the speed at which the small intestine transfers waste to the colon. In the U.S., some research studies have demonstrated that up to 80% of the IBS population, or 36 million individuals, suffer from SIBO.
What is the small bowel?
The small bowel, also known as the small intestine, is the part of the gastrointestinal tract that connects the stomach with the colon. The main purpose of the small intestine is to digest and absorb food into the body. The small intestine is approximately 21 feet in length.
What is a hydrogen and methane breath test for small intestinal bacterial overgrowth?
The Hydrogen and Methane Breath Test for SIBO is a non-invasive diagnostic tool to identify SIBO, and can be administered in the comfort of a patient’s own home. Patients are given a substrate solution to drink, which is a mixture of water and a carbohydrate substrate (lactulose or glucose). After drinking the substrate solution, the patient will collect a series of breath samples by simply breathing into a test tube using a straw. In a healthy individual, one would not expect to see any hydrogen or methane in the breath samples for approximately 90 minutes – 2 hours, the approximate time it would take for the substrate to travel to the small intestine to the colon where, in a healthy system, the substrate would be fed upon by bacteria, thus releasing the hydrogen and methane gas. After ingesting a substrate solution, the patient collects breath samples every 15 minutes over a 2 hour and 15 minute (135 minutes) period. During the hydrogen and methane breath test for SIBO, the presence of elevated levels of hydrogen or methane gas, or both, identified within 90 minutes of ingesting the substrate solution provides evidence of bacteria in the upper region of the digestive tract, i.e. at the level of the small intestine. This excessive build up bacteria is often diagnosed as SIBO. Our SIBO breath test can be administered in-office or in the comfort of the patient’s own home.
Optimal range: 0 - 19.99 ppm
Optimal range: 0 - 2.99 ppm
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Organix Comprehensive Profile - Urine
The Organix Comprehensive Profile is a nutritional test providing insights into organic acids and a view into the body's cellular metabolic processes.
Organic acids are metabolic intermediates that are produced in pathways of central energy production, detoxification, neurotransmitter breakdown, or intestinal microbial activity. Marked accumulation of specific organic acids detected in urine often signals a metabolic inhibition or block. The metabolic block may be due to a nutrient deficiency, an inherited enzyme deficit, toxic build-up or drug effect. Several of the biomarkers are markers of intestinal bacterial or yeast overgrowth.
The Organix Comprehensive nutritional test profile provides vital patient information from a single urine specimen. This organic acids nutritional test is valuable for determining:
Optimal range: 0 - 0.192 mcg/mg creatinine
2-Methylhippurate is a byproduct of detoxification of the common solvent xylene. Urinary excretion of 2-methylhippurate is a sensitive and specific marker for xylene exposure which increases oxidative stress.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.05 mcg/mg creatinine
3,4-Dihydroxyphenylpropionate seems to be strongly associated with a troublesome type of bacteria called Clostridia.
Optimal range: 1.6 - 9.8 mcg/mg creatinine
5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) is a breakdown product of serotonin that is excreted in the urine. Serotonin is a hormone found at high levels in many body tissues. Serotonin and 5HIAA are produced in excess amounts by carcinoid tumors, and levels of these substances may be measured in the urine to test for carcinoid tumors.
Optimal range: 0 - 7.6 ng/mg creatinine
8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine measures the oxidative impact to DNA. 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine levels will be high if your total antioxidant protection is inadequate.
Optimal range: 0 - 11.1 mcg/mg creatinine
Adipate, together with Suberate and Ethylmalonate are all functional markers for deficiency of carnitine.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.9 mcg/mg creatinine
Alpha-Hydroxybutyrate is a by-product of glutathione production. Levels of alpha-hydroxybutyrate in the urine may reflect levels of glutathione production.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.1 mcg/mg creatinine
Alpha-Keto-Beta-Methylvalerate is a B-Complex Vitamin Marker. Vitamins are compounds that your body needs to be healthy. Vitamins are “essential” for proper function, which means that they are not made inside your body and must be consumed in the diet.
Optimal range: 0 - 35 mcg/mg creatinine
Alpha-Ketoglutarate is an organic acid that is important for the proper metabolism of all essential amino acids. It is formed in the Krebs cycle, the energy-producing process that occurs in most body cells.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.52 mcg/mg creatinine
Alpha-Ketoisocaproate is a B-Complex Vitamin Marker (Leucine catabolism).
Optimal range: 0 - 0.49 mcg/mg creatinine
Alpha-Ketoisovalerate (together with Alpha-Ketoisocaproate and Alpha-Keto-Beta-methylvalerate) requires Vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5 and lipoic acid to be metabolized.
Optimal range: 0 - 9.3 mcg/mg creatinine
Benzoate, was one of the compounds first found to be elevated in urine from patients with intestinal bacterial overgrowth of various origins.
Optimal range: 0 - 9.9 mcg/mg creatinine
ß-Hydroxybutyrate is a metabolic marker of blood sugar utilization and insulin function.
Optimal range: 0 - 11.5 mcg/mg creatinine
Beta-Hydroxyisovalerate is a sensitive indicator of biotin deficiency and is a metabolite of the amino acid isoleucine.
Optimal range: 18 - 78 mcg/mg creatinine
cis-Aconitate is involved in both energy production and removal of toxic ammonia.
Optimal range: 56 - 987 mcg/mg creatinine
Citric acid, cis-aconitic acid, and isocitric acid are the first three metabolites in the Krebs Citric Acid energy production cycle, which operates in the mitochondria of your cells.
Optimal range: 0 - 73 mcg/mg creatinine
D-Arabinitol is a marker for intestinal yeast overgrowth.
Yeast is another class of microbes that can chronically grow in the intestinal tract and cause adverse health effects through the release of toxic metabolites. D-Arabinitol is uniquely produced by intestinal yeast, and the degree of elevation is a useful marker of their growth.
D-arabinitol is produced from dietary carbohydrates when yeasts are rapidly growing in the low oxygen environment of the small intestine.
Optimal range: 0 - 4.1 mcg/mg creatinine
D-Lactate is produced by bacteria residing in the colon when carbohydrates are not completely absorbed in the small intestine. This by-product is excreted in the urine.
Optimal range: 0 - 6.3 mcg/mg creatinine
Ethylmalonate, together with Adipate and Suberate, gives information about your ability to process fatty acids.
Optimal range: 0 - 2.2 mcg/mg creatinine
Formiminoglutamate (FIGLU) is a functional marker of insufficiency of folic acid, another B-vitamin, and is a compound made from the amino acid histidine.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.35 mcg/mg creatinine
Fumarate (together with Succinate and Malate) is used in the body’s metabolic pathway that generates cellular energy – the Citric Acid Cycle.
Optimal range: 0 - 10.7 mcg/mg creatinine
Glucarate helps your liver perform its important role in removing from your body many types of toxins such as pesticides, prescription drugs, food components, and intestinal bacteria.
Optimal range: 0 - 1070 mcg/mg creatinine
Microbes resident in the large intestine of the human body help to break down complex aromatic compounds in dietary plant matter (polyphenols), freeing up benzoic acid, which enters the bloodstream. The liver can add the amino acid glycine to benzoic acid to form hippuric acid, which re-enters the blood and is absorbed by the kidneys. As a result, the kidneys excrete hundreds of milligrams of hippuric acid into the urine every day.
Optimal range: 4 - 71 ug/g creat
Histamine is a compound that affects immune response and physiological function of the digestive tract, and also acts as a neurotransmitter.
Histamine helps control the sleep-wake cycle as well as energy and motivation.
Optimal range: 1.4 - 7.6 mcg/mg creatinine
Homovanillate (aka Homovanillic Acid) is a dopamine metabolite.
Homovanillate and Vanilmandelate are breakdown products from neurotransmitters involved in hormone and nerve impulse transmission, called catecholamines.
Optimal range: 0 - 5.1 mcg/mg creatinine
Hydroxymethylglutarate (HMG) is the precursor to Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) production, and when it is elevated it may indicate that the body is trying to increase its production of CoQ10.
Optimal range: 0 - 90 mcg/mg creatinine
Indican is an indole produced when bacteria in the intestine act on the amino acid, tryptophan. Most indoles are excreted in the feces. The remainder is absorbed, metabolized by the liver, and excreted as indicanin the urine.
Optimal range: 39 - 143 mcg/mg creatinine
Citric acid, cis-aconitic acid, and isocitric acid are the first three metabolites in the Krebs Citric Acid energy production cycle, which operates in the mitochondria of your cells.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 mcg/mg creatinine
Alpha-Ketoisovalerate requires Vitamin B1, B5, lipoic acid, B2, and B3 (in descending order of significance) to be metabolized. As your food is broken down, specific compounds are formed at steps that require B vitamin assistance. a-Ketoisovalerateis one of these compounds. If these nutrients are insufficient, the keto acids may build up in the urine.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.5 mcg/mg creatinine
Kynurenate is product of the metabolism of L-Tryptophan and appears in urine in Vitamin B6 deficiencies. Your body needs vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) to utilize amino acids derived from dietary protein.
Optimal range: 0.6 - 16.4 mcg/mg creatinine
L-Lactate is a product of muscle use, so it is constantly produced in normal daily activity.
Optimal range: 0 - 3.1 mcg/mg creatinine
Malate is involved in the citric acid cycle (aka. Krebs cycle). The citric acid cycle is a series of reactions that occur in the mitochondrion to generate chemical energy that fuels the metabolism.
Optimal range: 0 - 2.3 mcg/mg creatinine
Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is a substance produced in very small amounts and is necessary for human metabolism and energy production.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.01 mcg/mg creatinine
Orotate is a sensitive marker of your liver’s capacity to convert toxic ammonia to non-toxic urea that you can excrete. That capacity can be increased by additional arginine. Ammonia toxicity can also be reduced by supplementation with α-ketoglutarate, magnesium, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid. Ammonia impairs brain function, causing difficulty with thinking, fatigue, headaches, and increased food sensitivities.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.8 mcg/mg creatinine
The presence of organic compounds such as p-Hydroxybenzoate in the urine may point towards significant dysbiosis (=impaired microbiota).
Optimal range: 0 - 34 mcg/mg creatinine
Associated with small intestinal bacteria overgrowth (SIBO) due to its production by C. di cile, C. stricklandii, C. lituseburense, C. subterminale, C. putrefaciens, and C. propionicum.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.66 mcg/mg creatinine
p-hydroxyphenyllactate is a marker of cell turnover. It is also a metabolite in tyrosine degradation and may be useful for studying disorders of tyrosine metabolism.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.18 mcg/mg creatinine
Produced from bacterial degradation of unabsorbed phenylalanine.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.06 mcg/mg creatinine
Phenylpropionate is a intestinal microbial balance marker. Phenylpropionate is formed from bacterial action on phenylalanine and it should only be present at very low levels.
Optimal range: 2.8 - 13.5 mcg/mg creatinine
Picolinate is a neurotransmitter metabolism marker and is produced under inflammatory conditions.
Optimal range: 28 - 88 mcg/mg creatinine
Pyroglutamate (or Pyroglutamic acid) is an intermediate in the glutathione metabolism and a marker of glutathione deficiency.
Optimal range: 0 - 6.4 mcg/mg creatinine
Pyruvate feeds into the citric acid cycle & converts into acetyl CoA. Pyruvate is formed from carbohydrate via glucose or glycogen & secondarily from fats (glycerol) & glycogenic amino acids.
Optimal range: 0 - 5.8 mcg/mg creatinine
Quinolinic acid is a neurotoxic substance produced by our own bodies and a metabolite of tryptophan.
Optimal range: 0 - 4.6 mcg/mg creatinine
Suberate, Adipate, and Ethylmalonate elevations can indicate that you may need additional carnitine and/or vitamin B2 to assist your cells in converting fats into energy efficiently.
Optimal range: 0 - 20.9 mcg/mg creatinine
Succinate (or succinic acid) is an important metabolite that is involved in several chemical processes in the body.
Optimal range: 690 - 2988 mcg/mg creatinine
Sulfate is associated with your body’s use of glutathione, an amino acid critical for removing toxins that is also a powerful antioxidant.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.41 mcg/mg creatinine
Tricarballylate is produced by a strain of aerobic bacteria. It binds to magnesium which results in magnesium deficiency.
Optimal range: 1.2 - 5.3 mcg/mg creatinine
Vanilmandelate (VMA) and Homovanillate (HVA) are breakdown products from neurotransmitters involved in hormone and nerve impulse transmission, called catecholamines.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.46 mcg/mg creatinine
Your body needs vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) to utilize amino acids derived from dietary protein. Inadequate vitamin B6 is one factor that leads to increased concentrations of kynurenate and xanthurenate in urine.
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Neurotransmitters
Optimal range: 360 - 1800 ug/g creat
Dopac (aka 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid) is a metabolite of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine serves as the reward and pleasure center in the brain. DOPAC and HVA (Homovanillic Acid) are dopamine metabolites.
DOPAC levels, when viewed in conjunction with dopamine levels, may provide insight into how the body processes neurotransmitters.
Optimal range: 800 - 13000 ug/g creat
5-HIAA is the primary metabolite of serotonin, a chemical substance (neurotransmitter) that transmits messages between nerve cells. After it is used by the body, serotonin is broken down in the liver, and its metabolites, including 5-HIAA, are excreted in the urine.
Optimal range: 64 - 261 ug/g creat
Dopamine is a chemical found naturally in the human body. It is a neurotransmitter, meaning it sends signals from the body to the brain. Dopamine plays a part in controlling the movements a person makes, as well as their emotional responses. The right balance of dopamine is vital for both physical and mental wellbeing.
Optimal range: 4.7 - 20.8 ug/g creat
Epinephrine is commonly known as adrenaline. Your body naturally produces it during times of stress. The hormone is also necessary for maintaining a healthy cardiovascular system — it makes the heart beat more strongly, and diverts blood to tissues during times of stress.
Optimal range: 2.4 - 12.7 uMol/gCr
GABA stands for Gamma-aminobutyric acid (γ-Aminobutyric Acid) and is a nonessential protein amino acid. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
Optimal range: 6.9 - 71.8 uMol/gCr
Glutamate functions as the major excitatory neurotransmitter and metabolic fuel throughout the body. Glutamate is produced in your body, and is also found in many foods.
Optimal range: 182 - 2225 uMol/gCr
Glycine plays an important role in the body’s ability to detoxify itself as well as in wound healing. It is also important in the creation of nucleic acids and bile acids.
Optimal range: 19 - 76 ug/g creat
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is important for mental focus and emotional stability.
Norepinephrine functions as a neurotransmitter and hormone that regulates the “fight or flight” response and elevates blood pressure and heart rate, stimulates wakefulness, and reduces digestive activity.
Optimal range: 0 - 145 pg/mL
Normetanephrine, a metabolite of norepinephrine, is at normally low levels in the plasma. Certain tumors increase the levels and will increase the levels of nor-metanephrine. The Normetanephrine test, when normal, means these tumors are not present.
Optimal range: 15 - 167 uMol/gCr
PEA stands for Beta-phenylethylamine and is an excitatory neurotransmitter made from phenylalanine and it modulates neuron voltage potentials to favor glutamate activity and neurotransmitter firing.
Optimal range: 57 - 306 ug/g creat
Serotonin plays important roles in the resolution of mood, sleep, and appetite.
Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter synthesized by enzymes that act on tryptophan and/or 5-HTP.
Neurotransmitters are divided into two basic categories:
– Excitatory neurotransmitters stimulate the brain and body.
– Inhibitory neurotransmitters calm the brain and body.
Just as levels of individual neurotransmitters are important in maintaining optimum health, so is the proper balance between your excitatory and inhibitory systems.
Optimal range: 52 - 1025 uMol/gCr
Taurine important for proper heart function, healthy sleep and promoting calmness.
Taurine is an amino sulfonic acid, but it is often referred to as an amino acid, a chemical that is a required building block of protein. Taurine is found in large amounts in the brain, retina, heart, and blood cells called platelets.
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Genova Diagnostics
Genova Diagnostics is a global clinical laboratory, pioneering a systems approach that supports healthcare providers in the personalized treatment and prevention of chronic disease.
Optimal range: 3.7 - 18.1 µmol/L
Eicosenoic acid has recently been reported as one of the five biomarkers for diagnosis of schizophrenia.
Optimal range: 30 - 100 ng/mL
Vitamin D is well known for the role it plays in regulating calcium and phosphorus to maintain bone health. Vitamin D insufficiency has been linked to depression and Seasonal Affective Disorder, neurological autoimmune processes, and in preventing on-going inflammation that damages tissue.
Vitamin D, frequently called the “sun vitamin,” is an essential component of the systems that our bodies use to keep bones and teeth strong. It also has important, emerging roles in immune function and cancer prevention. We have natural processes that regulate vitamin D production from the sun so extremely high levels of it are rare. Deficiency can cause a number of issues including weak bones, called osteomalacia.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.83 mmol/mol creatinine
a-hydroxybutyric acid (2-hydroxybuturic acid [2-HB]) is a marker that relates to oxidative stress.
a-hydroxybutyric acid is an organic acid produced from a-ketobutyrate via the enzymes lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) or a-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (HBDH).
Optimal range: 1 - 57 Ratio
This test measures the ratio of arachidonic acid (AA) to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in plasma. This ratio of the principle omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is a measure of the body’s eicosanoid balance. Balancing these eicosanoids in the body is an excellent way
for managing heart disease and other chronic and inflammatory processes.
Optimal range: 13 - 80 µmol/L
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is plant-based essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that must be obtained through the diet.
Optimal range: 6.8 - 31.7 mg/L
Naturally occurring vitamin E exists in eight chemical forms (alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol and alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocotrienol) that have varying levels of biological activity.
Alpha- (or α-) tocopherol is the only form that is recognized to meet human requirements. Alpha-tocopherol (body’s main form of vitamin E) functions as an antioxidant, regulates cell signaling, influences immune function and inhibits coagulation.
Optimal range: 0 - 113 ppb
The major tissue sites of aluminum toxicity are the nervous system, immune system, bone, liver, and red blood cells. Aluminum may also interfere with heme (porphyrin) synthesis.
Optimal range: 1.3 - 4.7 µmol/L
Arachidic acid (also called eicosanoic acid) is a long-chain saturated fatty acid. It is the elongation product of stearic acid and can be utilized as an energy source to build membranes.
Optimal range: 158 - 521 µmol/L
Arachidonic acid is an inflammatory omega-6 fatty acid. Our bodies produce this nutrient, and its excess may lead to inflammatory diseases and mood disorders.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 ppb
Arsenic is a natural component of the earth’s crust and is widely distributed throughout the environment in the air, water and land. It is highly toxic in its inorganic form and considered a carcinogenic heavy metal.
Optimal range: 0.6 - 2.9 µmol/L
Behenic acid is a saturated fatty acids, in particular it is part of the group of very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs).
Optimal range: 0.1 - 2.71 mg/L
Beta-Carotene is an oxidative stress marker.
– Beta-Carotene is involved in antioxidant protection.
– Beta-carotene is converted into vitamin A in the liver.
– Beta-carotene & other carotenoids are converted to vitamin A (retinol), involved in vision, antioxidant & immune function, gene expression & cell growth.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.1 ppb
The principal organs most vulnerable to cadmium toxicity are your kidney and lung. Environmental cadmium exposure is associated with renal tubular damage and high blood pressure. Cadmium toxicity impacts the kidney, where damage to proximal tubules has been described. Also, cadmium compounds are classified as carcinogenic to humans.
Cadmium, a common environmental pollutant and a major constituent of tobacco smoke, has been identified as a new class of endocrine disruptors with a wide range of detrimental effects on reproduction.
Optimal range: 24 - 65 ppm
Calcium is essential for bones and teeth, heart, nerves, muscles, and blood clotting.
Calcium is the most abundant mineral element in your body, because it is the major element in bones. Serum and red blood cell calcium, however, do not represent bone mineral content or dietary adequacy.
Although most of the body’s calcium is stored in bones, some circulates in the blood. About 40% of the calcium in blood is attached to proteins in blood, mainly albumin. Protein-bound calcium acts as a reserve source of calcium for the cells but has no active function in the body.
Optimal range: 0.8 - 6.2 µmol/L
Capric acid (also known as Decanoic acid) is a medium-chain fatty acid (=MCFA) abundant in tropical oils such as coconut oil, whereas small amounts are present in milk of goat, cow, and human. The MCFAs are virtually nonexistent in meats because animals oxidize them very rapidly from plants consumed, and do not accumulate in the tissues.
Optimal range: 0.48 - 3.04 mg/L
CoEnzyme Q10 is an essential component of the mitochondria of the energy producing unit of the cell.
Optimal range: 753 - 1920 ppb
Copper is part of enzymes, which are proteins that help biochemical reactions occur in every cell. Copper is involved in the absorption, storage and metabolism of iron.
Optimal range: 3.1 - 19.5 mmol/L
Optimal range: 27 - 140 µmol/L
Dihomogamma Linolenic Acid (DGLA) is the elongation product of Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA).
Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) is a fatty acid and part of the Omega-6 fatty acids family. Those fatty acids can predominatentely be found in vegetable oils, grains, most meats and dairy.
DGLA is a strong anti-inflammatory.
Optimal range: 0 - 2 µmol/L
Docosadienoic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid. Omega-6 fatty acids are a type of polyunsaturated fat found in vegetable oils, nuts and seeds.
Optimal range: 31 - 213 µmol/L
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is one of the omega-3 fatty acids.
Optimal range: 11 - 50 µmol/L
Docosapentaenoic acid, or DPA, is a lesser known member of the omega-3 family.
Optimal range: 2.6 - 18.1 µmol/L
Docosatetraenoic acid is also known as Adrenic acid / Adrenate.
Docosatetraenoic acid is a member of the class of compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids.
Fatty acids belong to one of three types or families: saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated. These names describe the structure of the fatty acid in terms of whether it is fully loaded with hydrogen.
Optimal range: 5.2 - 22.5 µmol/L
Eicosadienoic acid is the elongation product of Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) and the direct precursor of Dihomogamma Linolenic (DGLA).
Optimal range: 5 - 210 µmol/L
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) is a Polyunsaturated Omega-3 Fatty Acid and is involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes and prevention of blood clots.
Optimal range: 0.07 - 5.98 Ratio
The fatty acid profile shows the balance of fats and their metabolites in plasma. Your overall balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fats is represented by the ratios of AA/EPA(arachidonic acid/eicosapentaenoic acid) and EPA/DGLA.
Optimal range: 5 - 46 µmol/L
Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) is an omega-6 fatty acid. The body converts linoleic acid to gamma-linolenic acid and then to arachidonic acid (AA).
You can get gamma-linolenic acid from several plant-based oils, including evening primrose oil (EPO), borage oil, and black currant seed oil. Most of these oils also contain some linoleic acid.
Gamma-linolenic acid contains 18 carbons and 3 double bonds. It is synthesized from linoleic acid by adding a double bond using the delta-6-desaturase enzyme. This enzymatic reaction is very slow and further impaired in vitamin and mineral deficiencies such as zinc and cobalt. Stress, smoking, alcohol, and systemic inflammatory conditions can also slow this conversion.
Optimal range: 0.06 - 2.99 mg/L
Gamma-tocopherol is part of the Vitamin E classification group.
The term vitamin E refers to a group of eight naturally occurring compounds, all with different potencies:
– alpha-, beta-, gamma- and delta-tocopherol and
– alpha-, beta-, gamma- and delta-tocotrienol.
Optimal range: 3.5 - 16.4 mmol/mol creatinine
Glyceric acid is an organic acid that stems from the catabolism of the amino acid serine. Severe elevations in glyceric acid are an indication of a rare inborn error of metabolism known as glyceric aciduria. One form of glyceric aciduria is the result of a defect in the enzyme glycerate kinase which removes glyceric acid from the system.
Optimal range: 0 - 67 Units
Glycolic acid is another byproduct of the oxalate pathway and comes from the conversion of glyoxylic acid. Urinary levels of glycolic acid have most commonly been studied in the rare inborn error of metabolism primary hyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1). PH1 is caused by a deficiency of alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase (AGT) which converts glyoxylic acid into glycine. When this pathway is blocked, due to inborn error, glyoxylic acid ultimately leads to higher production of glycolic acid and oxalic acid.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.74 µmol/L
Heneicosanoic acid is an odd-numbered saturated fatty acid.
Fatty acids with odd numbers of carbon atoms are produced primarily by initiating the synthetic series with the three carbon compound, propionic acid. Vitamin B12 is required for the conversion of propionate into succinate for oxidation in the central energy pathways. Deficiency of vitamin B12 results in accumulation of propionate and subsequent buildup of the odd numbered fatty acids, such as heneicosanoic acid.
Optimal range: 0 - 24.4 µmol/L
Heptadecanoic Acid is an odd chain fatty acid.
Fatty acids with odd numbers of carbon atoms are produced primarily by initiating the synthetic series with the three carbon compound, propionic acid.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.43 µmol/L
Hexacosanoic acid is a saturated fatty acid. It is a very long-chain fatty acid. Accumulation of certain very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) is associated with degenerative diseases of the central nervous system.
Optimal range: 11 - 46 Ratio
LA/DGLA is a fatty acid ratio.
LA/DGLA stands for linolenic acid (=LA) and dihomogammalinolenic acid (=DGLA).
The LA/DGLA ratio is a biomarker that can indicate functional zinc deficiency.
Optimal range: 2.2 - 27.3 µmol/L
Lauric acid is a saturated fat and one of the medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) together myristic and capric acid.
Optimal range: 0 - 29 ppb
Lead toxicity causes paralysis and pain in the extremities due to effects on demyelinization, axonal degeneration, and presynaptic block.
Lead toxicity commonly affects sensory, visual, auditory, and cerebellar (coordination) functions, reflecting its impact on the nervous system. Normocytic, sideroblastic anemia is the consequence of lead’s inhibiting effects on enzymes in the heme biosynthesis pathway.
Optimal range: 0.63 - 2.45 µmol/L
Lignoceric Acid is a saturated fatty acids, in particular it is part of the group of very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs).
Optimal range: 821 - 2032 µmol/L
Linoleic acid is by far the most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid in most human tissues. Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid, and low levels indicate dietary insufficiency.
Optimal range: 0 - 2.6 nmol/ML
Lipid peroxides are oxidative degradation products of lipids, generated by a free radical chain reaction. Because of their abundance of reactive hydrogens, polyunsaturated fatty acids are highly susceptible to lipid peroxidation, which compromises the integrity and function of the cell membrane in which they reside.
Optimal range: 34 - 63 ppm
Measuring mineral concentrations inside your erythrocytes (red blood cells) is one of the best ways to determine their adequacy. Minerals are important catalysts that spark many of the chemical reactions in your body. The most extensively required mineral element in your body is magnesium. Erythrocyte magnesium is a measure of magnesium adequacy.
Optimal range: 0 - 8.3 µmol/L
Mead Acid (plasma) is a marker for overall, essential fatty acid status.
Optimal range: 0 - 9.8 ppb
Mercury is an element that is found all over the earth, in soil, rocks, and water. The issue with mercury is that if humans are exposed to it, depending on the amount, route, and duration of exposure, mercury can be toxic to humans.
Optimal range: 15 - 139 µmol/L
Myristic acid is a medium chain fatty acid (=MCFA). It is present in palm kernel oil, coconut oil, butterfat, milk and to some extent in animal fats.
Optimal range: 0.8 - 9.7 µmol/L
Myristoleic acid is one of the monounsaturated fatty acids.
Optimal range: 1.1 - 2.7 µmol/L
Nervonic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid. Nervonic acid has the longest carbon chain of all monounsaturated fatty acids. It is found in highest concentrations in nerve membranes, particularly in myelin sheaths, which are sleeves of fatty tissue that protect your nerve cells.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.89 µmol/L
Nonadecanoic Acid is an odd chain fatty acid.
Fatty acids with odd numbers of carbon atoms are produced primarily by initiating the synthetic series with the three carbon compound, propionic acid.
Optimal range: 466 - 1470 µmol/L
Oleic acid is the most common monounsaturated fatty acid in human cells.
Optimal range: 0 - 78 Units
Oxalic acid is the metabolic end-product of the glyoxylase pathway and is derived from the oxidation of glyoxylate. In the cell, the majority of glyoxylate is converted into glycine or glycolic acid. However, in some instances there may be greater oxidation of glyoxylate to oxalic acid. This leads to increased urinary excretion of oxalic acid. As 80% of kidney stones are calcium-oxalate stones, an increase in oxalic acid is strongly correlated to frequency of urolithiasis. As mentioned previously, there are inborn errors of metabolism that cause elevated oxalic acid such as primary hyperoxaluria.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.8 µmol/L
Palmitelaidic acid is a trans fat.
Trans fatty acids are prevalent in most diets because of the widespread use of hydrogenated oils used by manufacturers of margarines, bakery products, and peanut butters.
Optimal range: 667 - 2526 µmol/L
Palmitic acid is a saturated fatty acid.
Palmitic and stearic acids are significant markers for high consumption of saturated fats.
Optimal range: 30 - 256 µmol/L
Palmitoleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid. Palmitoleic acid is the desaturation product of palmitic acid. Since palmitic acid is predominant in human tissues where desaturase enzyme activity is present, one might expect relatively high levels of palmitoleic acid.
Optimal range: 0 - 20.6 µmol/L
Pentadecanoic acid is an odd numbered fatty acid with a 15-carbon backbone (15:0) and widely considered as one biomarker to assess dairy consumption/intake. It is not normally synthesized by humans, but is found in trace amounts in dairy products (milk fat) and ruminant meat fat.
Optimal range: 2303 - 3374 ppm
Erythrocyte potassium levels uniquely reveal your total body potassium status. Potassium is an abundant mineral that helps keep normal water balance between the cells and body fluids. Muscle contractions, nerve impulses and blood pressure rely on availability of potassium.
Optimal range: 0.13 - 0.32 ppm
Selenium is a mineral found in soil, water, and some foods. We need trace amounts for normal health, and selenium is an essential element in several metabolic pathways. It also has antioxidant properties that help prevent cellular damage from free radicals.
Optimal range: 250 - 629 µmol/L
Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid that is two carbon atoms longer than palmitic acid.
Optimal range: 1.1 - 1.64 Ratio
The stearic acid/oleic acid ratio from red blood cells is a marker for the presence of malignant tissue, particularly with prostate cancer. In tumors, the net result of changes in fatty acid metabolism is low stearic acid and high oleic acid, causing a profound shift in the ratio of stearic to oleic acids. One likely outcome of this shift is increased fluidity of the tumor cell membrane, resulting in more rapid movement of nutrients and waste products and allowing for faster metabolic rate. The stearic/oleic ratio is used to monitor the effectiveness of cancer therapy.
Values below 1.1 are associated with malignancy.
Optimal range: 0 - 59 µmol/L
The total C18 trans isomers include elaidic acid, petroselaidic, and transvaccenic acids. The presence of these eighteen-carbon long trans fatty acids in human tissue can disrupt or impair cell membrane function. A person with high levels of total C18 trans isomers should avoid hydrogenated oils.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.78 µmol/L
Tricosanoic Acid is an odd chain fatty acid.
Fatty acids with odd numbers of carbon atoms are produced primarily by initiating the synthetic series with the three carbon compound, propionic acid.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.023 Ratio
The Triene/Tetraene (T/T) ratio is another marker for essential fatty acid status. It is calculated as the ratio of Mead acid to arachidonic acid. This ratio, combined with measurements of the essential fatty acids and Mead acid, gives a more complete picture of the degree and nature of fatty acid deficiency. An elevated ratio shows a relative excess of triene (3 double bonds) compared to tetraene (4 double bonds), which results from essential fatty acid deficiency.
Optimal range: 40 - 122 µmol/L
Vaccenic acid is a naturally occurring trans-fatty acid. Vaccenic acid is called this way as it is found in cow’s milk. The latin word vacca means cow.
Optimal range: 0.29 - 1.05 mg/L
Vitamin A is an antioxidant in the membranes of your cells where it serves a protective function. Every day you lose some vitamin A, because it is used in the replacement of old tissues.
Optimal range: 643 - 1594 ppb
Zinc plays a vital role in immunity, protein metabolism, heme synthesis, growth & development, reproduction, digestion and antioxidant function.
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Genova: Amino Acids 40 Profile - Plasma
This test determines essential amino acid imbalances that affect both physical and mental function
Optimal range: 0 - 9.8 µmol/L , 0.00 - 0.98 µmol/dL
It is a component of the dietary peptide anserine. Anserine is beta-alanyl-1-methyl-L-histidine, and it is known to come from chicken, turkey, duck, rabbit, tuna and salmon.
Optimal range: 0 - 52 µmol/L , 0.00 - 5.20 µmol/dL
3-Methylhistidine is an amino acid which is excreted in human urine.
The measurement of 3-methylhistidine provides an index of the rate of muscle protein breakdown. 3-Methylhistidine is a biomarker for meat consumption, especially chicken. It is also a biomarker for the consumption of soy products.
Optimal range: 230 - 681 µmol/L , 23.00 - 68.10 µmol/dL
Alanine is a non-essential amino acid and helps the body convert the simple sugar glucose into energy and eliminate excess toxins from the liver.
Optimal range: 0 - 39 µmol/L , 0.00 - 3.90 µmol/dL
Alpha-Amino-n-butyric acid (A-ANB/α-Amino-N-butyric acid) is an intermediate occurring in the catabolism of two essential amino acids, methionine and threonine.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.5 µmol/L , 0.00 - 0.15 µmol/dL
Alpha-aminoadipic acid (a-Aminoadipic acid) is an intermediary metabolite of lysine (primarily) and of tryptophan.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.22 Ratio
Alcohol consumption can result in elevations of the plasma Alpha-ANB/Leucine ratio. But to see this biomarker as a conclusive marker for alcoholism is not proven. The increase in the plasma Alpha-ANB/Leucine ratio does not appear to be specific for alcoholism because it was found elevated in nonalcoholic liver disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 43 µmol/L
Anserine is part of a group of Beta-Amino Acids and Derivatives. Anserine is beta-alanyl-1-methyl-L-histidine, and it is known to come from chicken, turkey, duck, rabbit, tuna and salmon.
Optimal range: 29 - 137 µmol/L , 2.90 - 13.70 µmol/dL
Arginine is a conditionally essential amino acid that is critical for your cardiovascular health and detoxification functions. The amino acid, arginine, is used to make the powerful blood vessel regulator, nitric oxide. Nitric oxide acts to lower blood pressure.
Optimal range: 31 - 90 µmol/L , 3.10 - 9.00 µmol/dL
Asparagine is a protein amino acid. It is non-essential in humans, meaning the body can synthesize it.
Asparagine is synthesized from aspartate and glutamine. Asparagine has three major functions:
Optimal range: 2.9 - 12.6 µmol/L , 0.29 - 1.26 µmol/dL
Aspartic acid is a nonessential protein amino acid. Aspartic Acid, also known as aspartate, is an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brainstem and spinal cord. Aspartic acid is the excitatory counterpart to glycine, an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Optimal range: 0 - 5 µmol/L , 0.00 - 0.50 µmol/dL
β-alanine is a breakdown product of carnosine and anserine, which are dipeptides from meat consumption. Although β-alanine’s properties are limited, its relationship to carnosine makes it important. Both have antioxidant properties. Carnosine is critical for pH buffering in skeletal muscle during exercise, but its formation can be limited by enzymatic factors.
For this reason, supplementation with β-alanine is sometimes used to enhance carnitine and therefore improve athletic performance. In addition to diet and supplementation, β-alanine can also be endogenously produced. This occurs via degradation of uracil in the liver but it can also be made by intestinal bacteria such as E. coli.
Optimal range: 0 - 3.2 µmol/L , 0.00 - 0.32 µmol/dL
Beta-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIB) is an amino acid end product of the pyrimidine metabolism. It is excreted in small quantities into the urine in almost all human beings. Thymine, released when RNA and DNA are degraded, enters a catabolic pathway that leads to Beta-Aminoisobutyric Acid.
Optimal range: 0 - 6.3 µmol/L
Carnosine is a dietary peptide related marker that consists of histidine and beta-alanine. Carnosine is an incompletely digested peptide that is derived primarily from beef and pork.
Optimal range: 18 - 57 µmol/L , 1.80 - 5.70 µmol/dL
The amino acid citrulline gets its name from its high concentration in the watermelon Citrullus vulgaris. In human kidneys, citrulline and aspartic acid are united by argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS) to produce arginosuccinate. The degradation of arginosuccinate to fumarate and arginine is a primary mechanism for sustaining plasma levels of arginine. The same enzyme acts in liver cells to complete the urea cycle.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.3 µmol/L , 0.00 - 0.03 µmol/dL
Cystathionine is an intermediary metabolite that is formed in the sequential enzymatic conversion of methionine to cysteine. Cystathionine is normally detected at very low levels in plasma. It is found between homocysteine and cysteine and is formed by the enzyme cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS).
Optimal range: 0.8 - 27.5 µmol/L
Cystine is the oxidized disulfide form of cysteine (Cys) and is the predominant form of cysteine in the blood due to its greater relative stability. Cystine is derived from dietary protein and, end formed endogenously from cysteine.
Optimal range: 0 - 11.6 µmol/L , 0.00 - 1.16 µmol/dL
Ethanolamine is a metabolite of the nonessential amino acid serine. In the presence of adequate levels of functional B-6 (P-5-P) serine is enzymatically converted to ethanolamine.
Optimal range: 0 - 2.9 µmol/L , 0.00 - 0.29 µmol/dL
GABA is a neurotransmitter that inhibits nervous system activity, producing a relaxation effect.
Optimal range: 24 - 214 µmol/L , 2.40 - 21.40 µmol/dL
Glutamic acid (or Glutamate) is a major mediator of excitatory signals in the brain and is involved in most aspects of normal brain function including cognition, memory and learning.
Optimal range: 0.06 - 0.23 Ratio
The Glutamic Acid/Glutamine Ratio is used to identify specimen handling issues that cause spontaneous degradation of glutamine to glutamate, and can reveal the origin of difficulty maintaining systemic pH balance.
Optimal range: 372 - 876 µmol/L , 37.20 - 87.60 µmol/dL
Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the blood and is an important source of energy for many tissues in the body. It is derived from the amino acids histidine and glutamic acid.
Optimal range: 155 - 518 µmol/L , 15.50 - 51.80 µmol/dL
Glycine is an amino acid with various important functions within your body, including detoxification, DNA formation, the synthesis of hemoglobin, and as a part of brain neurotransmission pathways. Glycine and serine are interchangeable.
Optimal range: 57 - 114 µmol/L , 5.70 - 11.40 µmol/dL
Histidine is the amino acid most necessary during stress. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein in our bodies.
Optimal range: 3 - 14 nmol/ML
Homocysteine is a sulphur-containing amino acid and is an intermediate metabolite of methionine metabolism. Homocysteine is a well-known cardiovascular disease risk factor.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.6 µmol/L
Homocystine is a common amino acid in your blood. You get it mostly from eating meat. High levels of it are linked to early development of heart disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.6 µmol/L
Hydroxylysine is an amino acid related to collagen.
What is collagen?
Collagen is the most abundant protein in your body. It is the major component of connective tissues that make up several body parts, including tendons, ligaments, skin and muscles.
Optimal range: 0 - 26 µmol/L
Hydroxyproline is a collagen related amino acid. Hydroxyproline is a nonessential amino acid, which means that it is manufactured from other amino acids in the liver. Hydroxyproline is necessary for the construction of the body’s major structural protein, collagen. Hydroxyproline is present in essentially all tissues and all genetic types of collagen.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.152 Ratio
The Hydroxyproline to Proline Ratio describes the relationship between Proline and Hydroxyproline and can be looked at in relation to your collagen metabolism.
Optimal range: 35 - 104 µmol/L , 3.50 - 10.40 µmol/dL
Isoleucine is one of the three branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) alongside both leucine and valine.
Isoleucine is a common component of proteins, peptides and hormones. Leucine is catabolized as a source of carbon for energy production during exercise in skeletal muscle.
Optimal range: 74 - 196 µmol/L , 7.40 - 19.60 µmol/dL
Leucine, together with isoleucine and valine, are essential amino acids that are referred to as branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs).
Leucine is nutritionally essential and is required for formation of body proteins, enzymes and some hormones. Leucine itself has a hormone-like activity which is stimulation of pancreatic release of insulin. The branched-chain structure of leucine makes it very important for the formation of flexible collagen tissues, particularly elastin in ligaments. Leucine is relatively abundant in all protein foods.
Optimal range: 120 - 318 µmol/L , 12.00 - 31.80 µmol/dL
Lysine is found in great quantities in muscle tissues, stimulates calcium absorption, carnitine synthesis, and growth and repair of muscle tissue.
Optimal range: 14 - 48 µmol/L , 1.40 - 4.80 µmol/dL
Methionine is an essential amino acid, meaning we need to get it from our diet as our body does not produce it. Methionine is a unique sulfur-containing amino acid that can be used to build proteins and produce many molecules in the body.
Optimal range: 28 - 117 µmol/L , 2.80 - 11.70 µmol/dL
Ornithine is a urea cycle metabolite.
Ornithine can stimulate the release of growth hormone. Growth hormone is necessary for tissue repair and growth. Growth hormone is often low in patients with fibromyalgia.
Optimal range: 42 - 95 µmol/L , 4.20 - 9.50 µmol/dL
Phenylalanine is a precursor for the amino acid tyrosine, which is essential for making neurotransmitters (e.g. epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine) and thyroid hormone. Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that communicate between nerve cells in the brain. It can relieve pain, alleviate depression, and suppress the appetite. Low levels may indicate a stressful lifestyle, leading to memory loss, fatigue, and depression.
Optimal range: 0 - 1.19 Ratio
The Phenylalanine/Tyrosine Ratio evaluates the body’s ability to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine; Conversion enzyme requires tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), niacin (B3), and iron as cofactors.
Optimal range: 0 - 7.4 µmol/L , 0.00 - 0.74 µmol/dL
Phosphoethanolamine together with Ethanolamine and Phosphoserine are amino acids that are closely related structurally and they share principal roles in phospholipid metabolism.
Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are important components of cell membranes. Phospholipids are found in high concentrations in the membrane of practically every cell of the body.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.8 µmol/L , 0.00 - 0.08 µmol/dL
Phosphoserine is a product of glycolysis and is formed by amino group transfer from glutamic acid to phosphohydroxypyruvic acid.
Optimal range: 99 - 363 µmol/L , 9.90 - 36.30 µmol/dL
Proline is a nonessential amino acid, which means that it is manufactured from other amino acids in the liver; it does not have to be obtained directly through the diet.
Proline is the precursor to hydroxyproline, which is a major amino acid found in the connective tissue of the body – collagen.
Optimal range: 0 - 10.4 µmol/L , 0.00 - 1.04 µmol/dL
Sarcosine is also known as N-methylglycine. It is an intermediate and byproduct in the glycine synthesis and degradation. Sarcosine is metabolized to glycine by the enzyme sarcosine dehydrogenase, while glycine-N-methyl transferase generates sarcosine from glycine.
Optimal range: 60 - 172 µmol/L , 6.00 - 17.20 µmol/dL
Serine can be used as an energy source. Formed from threonine and phosphoserine (requiring B6, manganese, and magnesium), serine is necessary for the biosynthesis of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter used in memory function.
Optimal range: 29 - 136 µmol/L , 2.90 - 13.60 µmol/dL
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid required for bile formation.
Optimal range: 73 - 216 µmol/L , 7.30 - 21.60 µmol/dL
Threonine is an essential amino acid, i.e., it is vital for your health, but it cannot be synthesized by your body and therefore has to be obtained from a diet.
Optimal range: 31 - 83 µmol/L , 3.10 - 8.30 µmol/dL
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid required for the production of the neurotransmitter serotonin.
Optimal range: 0.095 - 0.106 Ratio
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid, a subunit in protein molecules and a precursor to serotonin. The brain uses tryptophan to produce serotonin, a neurotransmitter largely responsible for feelings of happiness and well-being.
Tryptophan cannot be synthesised by the body and must be obtained through diet.
Optimal range: 38 - 110 µmol/L , 3.80 - 11.00 µmol/dL
Tyrosin is the non-essential amino acid precursor for dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine. Tyrosine hydroxylase converts tyrosine into the dopamine precursor L-DOPA; BH4, Vitamin D and iron are cofactors for that enzymatic activity.
Optimal range: 146 - 370 µmol/L , 14.60 - 37.00 µmol/dL
Valine, together with Isoleucine and Leucine are essential amino acids and are collectively referred to as branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs).
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Sjögren's Syndrome
Sjögren's Syndrome is an autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly reacts to the tissue in glands that produce moisture, such as tear and salivary glands. Sjögren's Syndrome can affect anyone at any age, but the majority of those afflicted are older than 40, and women are nine times more likely than men to have the disorder. It is estimated to be the second most common autoimmune disease, after lupus.
Criteria for diagnosis include, for example, signs and symptoms and positive tests for ANA, anti-SSA and anti-SSB, and/or Rheumatoid factor (RF) as well as a positive salivary gland biopsy.
anti-SSA antibodies are often found together with anti-SSB. However, anti-SSA antibodies alone are often found in lupus, particularly in limited forms of the disease. anti-SSA often appears before anti-SSB.
Specific biomarkers to look at:
SS-A (or Ro) and SS-B (or La): These are the marker antibodies for Sjögren's and the most common antibodies associated with Sjogren’s syndrome. Seventy percent of Sjögren’s patients are positive for SS-A and 40% are positive for SS-B (these may also be found in lupus patients).
ANA (Anti-Nuclear Antibody): ANAs are a group of antibodies that react against normal components of a cell nucleus. About 70% of Sjögren’s patients have a positive ANA test result. (you find this marker in our Immune system category)
RF (Rheumatoid Factor): This antibody test is indicative of a rheumatic disease, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), lupus and Sjögren’s. It doesn’t, however, specify which rheumatic disease a person has. In Sjögren’s patients, 60-70% have a positive RF. (you find this marker in our Immune system category)
ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate): This test measures inflammation. An elevated ESR indicates the presence of an inflammatory disorder, including Sjögren’s. (you find this marker in our Immune system category)
IGs (Immunoglobulins): These are normal blood proteins that participate in immune reactions and are usually elevated in Sjögren’s patients. (you find this marker in our Immune system category)
Optimal range: 0 - 1 AI
Anti-Ro (SS-A) is an autoantibody associated with SLE or Sjögren’s syndrome. Sjögren’s syndrome is an autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly reacts to the tissue in glands that produce moisture, such as tear and salivary glands.
Optimal range: 0 - 1 AI
Anti-SS-B (anti-La) is an autoantibody associated with SLE or Sjögren’s syndrome. Sjögren’s syndrome is an autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly reacts to the tissue in glands that produce moisture, such as tear and salivary glands.
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Cortisol Awakening Response + DHEA (Saliva)
Cortisol Awakening Response (CAR):
- CAR represents the momentum of rising cortisol levels that begins several hours prior to awakening and an additional
transient increase.
- CAR reflects a person’s ability to cope with anticipated challenges and the perceptions of control around chronic stress.
Elevated levels of CAR:
- Elevated levels may be due to stress, exercise, alcohol, and specific lifestyle stressors.
- Elevated evening salivary cortisol is linked to insomnia.
- High evening cortisol levels are also associated with various diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hormonally driven cancers, and osteoporosis.
DHEA:
DHEA levels peak at around age 25, then decline steadily through the following decades. DHEA can be converted downstream in the steroidogenic pathway to create androgens and estrogens. It has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and can be protective against corticosterone’s neurotoxic effects.
- Lower levels of DHEA are seen with advancing age and have been associated with immune dysregulation, cardiovascular disease, arthritis, osteoporosis, insomnia, declining cognition, depression, fatigue, and decreased libido.
- Elevated levels of DHEA may reflect endogenous exposure and supplementation. Other considerations include Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS,) adrenal hyperplasia and adrenal tumors.
General recommendations include overall control of the cortisol response, HPA axis support using nutrition, adaptogens, and behavioral modification.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.94 nmol/L
Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is the primary agent used in our body’s flight or fight response to threatening stimuli.
Optimal range: 0.75 - 2.93 nmol/L
Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is the primary agent used in our body’s flight or fight response to threatening stimuli.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 nmol/L
Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is the primary agent used in our body’s flight or fight response to threatening stimuli.
Optimal range: 0.36 - 1.88 nmol/L
Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is the primary agent used in our body’s flight or fight response to threatening stimuli.
Optimal range: 2.68 - 9.3 nmol/L
Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is the primary agent used in our body’s flight or fight response to threatening stimuli.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 nmol/L
Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is the primary agent used in our body’s flight or fight response to threatening stimuli.
Optimal range: 137 - 336 pg/mL
DHEA levels peak at around age 25, then decline steadily through the following decades. DHEA can be converted downstream in the steroidogenic pathway to create androgens and estrogens. It has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and can be protective against corticosterone’s neurotoxic effects.
Optimal range: 0.25 - 2.22 nmol/L , 0.87 - 7.70 pg/mL
DHEA levels peak at around age 25, then decline steadily through the following decades. DHEA can be converted downstream in the steroidogenic pathway to create androgens and estrogens. It has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and can be protective against corticosterone’s neurotoxic effects.
Optimal range: 0.05 - 0.32 Ratio
This calculation represents anabolic and catabolic balance. Since DHEA acts not only as an anabolic hormone, but appears to down-regulate the cellular effects of cortisol, this measurement can theoretically enhance the predictive value of HPA axis dysfunction.
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Lipoprotein Particles and Apolipoproteins
Lipoproteins are substances made of protein and fat that carry cholesterol through your bloodstream.
Optimal range: 102 - 200 mg/dL
Apolipoprotein A is a protein carried in HDL ("good") cholesterol. It helps start the process for HDL to remove bad types of cholesterol from your body. In this way, apolipoprotein A can help to lower your risk for cardiovascular disease. Apolipoprotein A levels can be measured. But it's more common to measure the HDL and LDL ("bad") cholesterol when looking at cardiovascular risk.
This biomarker is useful for:
- Evaluating risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease
- Aiding in the detection of Tangier disease
Optimal range: 0 - 90 mg/dL
- Apolipoprotein B (apoB) levels are used to evaluate the risk for cardiovascular disease.
- LDL and its major protein, apolipoprotein B, play an essential role in lipid transport and metabolism.
- ApoB levels are higher in males than in females and tend to increase with age.
- ApoB plays a central role in carrying cholesterol and triglycerides from the liver and gut to utilization and storage sites.
- Incontestable data support the concept that apoB is a better tool to assess cardiovascular disease than LDL-C and non-DHL-C.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.77 Ratio
Studies have shown that the ratio of apolipoprotein A-1:apolipoprotein B may correlate better with increased risk of coronary artery disease (CAD) than total cholesterol, and LDL:HDL ratio.
Optimal range: 0 - 80 mg/dL
Apolipoprotein B100 (apoB100) is a building block of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDLs), and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). These related molecules all transport fats and cholesterol in the bloodstream.
Optimal range: 6729 - 10000 nmol/L
This test identifies 5 subclasses of HDL, 1 is identified as the large HDL subclass. Decreased levels of the large HDL subclass are associated with a 1.8-fold increased risk for CVD. Large HDL particles are functionally associated with an antioxidant, paraoxanase, which may help protect the arterial wall.
Optimal range: 10 - 100 mg/dL
HDLs comprise a family of heterogeneous particles that vary by size, density, composition, and functionality. Two distinct HDL subfractions, large buoyant HDL2 and small dense HDL3, might exert differential effects on atherosclerosis and display a promising role in CAD risk prediction.
HDL-2 is part of the larger HDL cholesterol family, which is responsible for removing excess cholesterol from the body and transporting it to the liver. HDL-2 is formed when HDL particles in the blood interact with enzymes and acquire more cholesterol.
The large HDL2 is superior to small HDL3 in the assessment of of coronary artery disease risk.
Optimal range: 30 - 100 mg/dL
HDL3-C subfractions are significantly and inversely associated with arterial stiffness, suggesting that HDL subfractions are likely more important than HDL-C in preventing cardiovascular disease.
Broadly, HDL can be distinguished into two subfractions, by density: HDL2 cholesterol (HDL2-C) and HDL3 cholesterol (HDL3-C). HDL3-C is well approximated by the sum of small and medium HDL particles (HDL-P), whereas HDL2-C correlates strongly with large HDL-P. There is no consensus, however, on the functions of HDL2-C and HDL3-C. Whereas some researchers have confirmed that large HDL-Ps have a protective effect on CHD, others recognized that the small, dense, protein-rich HDL-Ps display more potent atheroprotective properties than large, buoyant cholesterol-rich particles.
Optimal range: 30.5 - 100 umol/L
HDL-P, a measurement of total HDL particle number concentration, may be a better marker of residual risk than chemically measured high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, the so-called “good” cholesterol) or apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1, the major protein on HDL), ie, there may be a more consistent inverse association between cardiovascular endpoints and HDL-P compared with HDL-C.
Direct quantification of HDL-P concentration by NMR may be useful to refine cardiovascular risk and to evaluate novel HDL-directed therapies. Further studies are needed to clarify the role of HDL-P in clinical practice.
Optimal range: 0 - 215 nmol/L
This test measures the number of particles in each of the 8 LDL subclasses. Six of these 8 subclasses are small LDL subclass particles. These smaller particles are associated with rapid uptake into the endothelium contributing to accelerated atherosclerosis.
There is a 1.3-fold increased risk for Cardiovascular diseases associated with the small LDL trait and a 1.4-fold increased risk with the medium LDL trait.
Optimal range: 0 - 1138 nmol/L
LDL-P (LDL particle number) measures the actual number of LDL particles (particle concentration, nmol/L). It appears that LDL-P may be a stronger predictor of cardiovascular events than LDL-C.
Lipoproteins are particles that transport fats throughout the body. These particles are essential and carry a combination of proteins, vitamins, cholesterol, triglyceride, and phospholipid molecules. The composition of a lipoprotein particle changes as it circulates in the blood. Some molecules are removed and others are added, resulting in lipoprotein particles with variable amounts of cholesterol.
Optimal range: 0 - 0 Units
LDL patterns A and B refer to the size of LDL cholesterol particles in the blood. Some doctors believe that small LDL cholesterol particles in the blood may pose a greater risk for developing atherosclerosis and heart attacks than the absolute level of LDL cholesterol in the blood. The size of LDL cholesterol particles is primarily inherited. A special blood test called polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis can measure particle size and determine whether a person has blood cholesterol LDL pattern A or LDL pattern B.
PATTERN A:
Persons with LDL cholesterol pattern A have large, buoyant LDL cholesterol particles. Individuals with pattern A are more likely to have normal blood levels of LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides. Pattern A is usually not associated with an increased likelihood of atherosclerosis.
PATTERN B:
Persons with LDL cholesterol pattern B have predominantly small and dense LDL cholesterol particles. Pattern B is frequently associated with low HDL cholesterol levels, elevated triglyceride levels, and the tendency to develop high blood sugar levels and type II diabetes mellitus.
Optimal range: 222.9 - 1000 Angstrom
An average size of LDL peak subclass particles measuring less than 218 angstroms, as measured with Ion Mobility, is associated with a 1.35-fold increased risk for CVD.
Contributing factors:
Genetics/demographics:
- Genetic predisposition
- High triglyceride and low HDL-C levels
Optimal range: 20.51 - 100 nm
Small LDL-P and LDL Size are associated with CVD risk, but not after LDL-P is taken into account.
Optimal range: 0 - 142 nmol/L
Small LDL subclass particles cause plaque buildup to progress much faster because they enter the artery wall more easily than large LDL particles. A predominance of smaller LDL particles, referred to as Pattern B lipid phenotype, represents an atherogenic lipid profile that is associated with CVD.
Optimal range: 0 - 1000 nmol/L
Lipoproteins are particles that transport fats throughout the body. These particles are essential and carry a combination of proteins, vitamins, cholesterol, triglyceride, and phospholipid molecules.
The composition of a lipoprotein particle changes as it circulates in the blood. Some molecules are removed and others are added, resulting in lipoprotein particles with variable amounts of cholesterol. Low-density lipoprotein particles (LDL-P) are bi-products of fat transport that remain in circulation for an extended time. While in circulation, LDL-P can penetrate the artery wall and get stuck, forming a fatty plaque. These plaques can build over time and lead to blockages, resulting in heart attacks and strokes.
Optimal range: 0 - 57 mg/dL
Optimal range: 0 - 30 mg/dL
Optimal range: 0 - 6 mg/dL
Optimal range: 0 - 0 mg/dL
Optimal range: 0 - 30 mg/dL , 0.00 - 63.00 nmol/L
Lipoprotein(a) is a unique lipoprotein that has emerged as an independent risk factor for developing vascular disease.
Optimal range: 0 - 123 nmol/min/mL
Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2), also known as platelet activating factor Acetylhydrolase, is an inflammatory enzyme that circulates bound mainly to low density lipoproteins and has been found to be localized and enriched in atherosclerotic plaques.
Optimal range: 0 - 45 Units
The LP-IR score assesses an individual’s insulin resistance level and diabetes risk.
Optimal range: 0 - 527 nmol/L
These particles are associated with an increased risk of heart disease; more of these small particles lead to greater risk. Your Small LDL particle score can vary widely, with a lower score being much better.
Optimal range: 2 - 36 mg/dL , 0.05 - 0.93 mmol/L
What is VLDL?
VLDL stands for very-low-density lipoprotein. Your liver makes VLDL and releases it into your bloodstream. The VLDL particles mainly carry triglycerides, another type of fat, to your tissues. VLDL is similar to LDL cholesterol, but LDL mainly carries cholesterol to your tissues instead of triglycerides.
VLDL and LDL are sometimes called "bad" cholesterols because they can contribute to the buildup of plaque in your arteries. This buildup is called atherosclerosis. The plaque that builds up is a sticky substance made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. Over time, the plaque hardens and narrows your arteries. This limits the flow of oxygen-rich blood to your body. It can lead to coronary artery disease and other heart diseases.
A normal VLDL level is below 30 mg/dL. Your healthcare provider can measure your VLDL cholesterol through a simple blood test. If your VLDL is high, lifestyle changes and medication can help.
Optimal range: 0 - 10 mg/dL
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IgG Subclass Deficiency
Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins. There are five types or classes of immunoglobulin: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE. Most of the antibodies in the blood and the fluid that surround the tissues and cells of the body are of the IgG class. The IgG class of antibodies is composed of four different subtypes of IgG molecules called the IgG subclasses. These are designated IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4.
Optimal range: 382 - 929 mg/dL
IgG is a combination of four slightly different types of IgG called IgG subclasses: IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4. When one or more of these subclasses is persistently low and total IgG is normal, a subclass deficiency is present.
Optimal range: 241 - 700 mg/dL
IgG is a combination of four slightly different types of IgG called IgG subclasses: IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4. When one or more of these subclasses is persistently low and total IgG is normal, a subclass deficiency is present.
Optimal range: 22 - 178 mg/dL
IgG is a combination of four slightly different types of IgG called IgG subclasses: IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4. When one or more of these subclasses is persistently low and total IgG is normal, a subclass deficiency is present.
Optimal range: 4 - 86 mg/dL
IgG is a combination of four slightly different types of IgG called IgG subclasses: IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4. When one or more of these subclasses is persistently low and total IgG is normal, a subclass deficiency is present.
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Metabolic Analysis Markers (Urine)
The Metabolic Analysis Profile (Urine) measures four critical areas of metabolism: gastrointestinal function and dysbiosis markers, cellular and mitochondrial energy metabolites, neurotransmitter metabolites, and functionally important organic acid metabolites of amino acids.
Optimal range: 0 - 0.76 mmol/mol creatinine
Metabolite of phenylalanine via phenyl pyruvate.
Optimal range: 0 - 29 mmol/mol creatinine
Production of 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid begins with the conversion of 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA into 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA in the mitochondria by the biotin-dependent enzyme methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase.
Optimal range: 0 - 8.1 mmol/mol creatinine
3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is a rutin metabolite and an antioxidant.
Optimal range: 5 - 22 mmol/mol creatinine
Metabolite of propionic acid, precursor of methylmalonic acid via both biotin and Mg.
Optimal range: 0.02 - 0.22 mmol/mol creatinine
3-Methyl-4-OH-phenylglycol is the breakdown product from norepinephrine, but it may also be produced from epinephrine to a lesser extent.
Optimal range: 0 - 29 mmol/mol creatinine
A tyrosine metabolic product of GI bacteria.
Optimal range: 3.8 - 12.1 mmol/mol creatinine
5-OH-indoleacetic Acid is a breakdown product of serotonin that is excreted in the urine. Serotonin is a hormone found at high levels in many body tissues. Serotonin and 5-OH-indoleacetic Acid are produced in excess amounts by carcinoid tumors, and levels of these substances may be measured in the urine to test for carcinoid tumors.
