Verrucarin A (VRA) is a macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxin produced from Stachybotrys, Fusarium, and Myrothecium. Trichothecenes are frequently found in buildings with water damage but can also be found in contaminated grain. VRA is a small, amphipathic molecule that can move passively across cell membranes.

Verrucarin and Verrucarol are trichothecene mycotoxins mainly produced by Fusarium and Aspergillus species and are known to cause tremors, immune toxicity, inflammation, are cytotoxic (= can damage cells or cause them to die), and are potent protein synthesis inhibitors (= stops or slows the growth or proliferation of cells by disrupting the processes that lead directly to the generation of new proteins).

Verrucarin and Verrucarol are trichothecene mycotoxins mainly produced by Fusarium and Aspergillus species and are known to cause tremors, immune toxicity, inflammation, are cytotoxic (= can damage cells or cause them to die), and are potent protein synthesis inhibitors (= stops or slows the growth or proliferation of cells by disrupting the processes that lead directly to the generation of new proteins).

Verrucarin J is a trichothecene produced by Stachybotrys chartarum. They can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. These Trichothecenes are lipophilic and thus the route of exposure can easily be through the skin, gut, and pulmonary mucosa.

The marker "Verrucomicrobia Phylum" refers to a group of bacteria belonging to the phylum Verrucomicrobia, which is often evaluated during stool tests to understand gut health. Verrucomicrobia are a less common but interesting group of bacteria that reside in various environments, including soil, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, but they are also present in the human gut, particularly in the large intestine. In the context of a GI Panel, the presence and levels of Verrucomicrobia can provide insights into the microbial diversity of the gut, which is crucial for maintaining digestive health and immune function. These bacteria are particularly noted for their role in breaking down complex polysaccharides (large sugar molecules), which is an important process in the human digestive system. An imbalance in the levels of Verrucomicrobia, either too high or too low, can indicate disturbances in the gut microbiome, which might be associated with various health conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease or obesity. Therefore, monitoring this phylum can help healthcare providers assess gut health and contribute to the diagnosis and management of gastrointestinal disorders.

What is VLDL?

VLDL stands for very-low-density lipoprotein. Your liver makes VLDL and releases it into your bloodstream. The VLDL particles mainly carry triglycerides, another type of fat, to your tissues. VLDL is similar to LDL cholesterol, but LDL mainly carries cholesterol to your tissues instead of triglycerides.

VLDL and LDL are sometimes called "bad" cholesterols because they can contribute to the buildup of plaque in your arteries. This buildup is called atherosclerosis. The plaque that builds up is a sticky substance made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. Over time, the plaque hardens and narrows your arteries. This limits the flow of oxygen-rich blood to your body. It can lead to coronary artery disease and other heart diseases.

A normal VLDL level is below 30 mg/dL. Your healthcare provider can measure your VLDL cholesterol through a simple blood test. If your VLDL is high, lifestyle changes and medication can help.

What is the VGCC Antibody?

The VGCC (Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel) antibody is an autoantibody that targets calcium channels found on the surface of nerve cells. These channels play a critical role in transmitting nerve signals, especially in muscles and the brain. When the immune system mistakenly produces VGCC antibodies, it can interfere with normal nerve function and may be linked to certain neurological and autoimmune disorders.

Vibrios are inhabitants of estuarine and fresh waters and some species are pathogenic to humans, and marine vertebrates and invertebrates. In humans, some species of vibrios can cause gastroenteritis following ingestion of contaminated food or water and septicemia when pre-existing cuts or abrasions on skin come in contact with contaminated water or seafoods.

Vibrio cholerae is one of the most common causes of diarrhea worldwide. While diarrhea associated with V. cholerae is predominately seen in the Indian subcontinent, South East Asia, Africa, and South America, sporadic cases of V. cholerae-induced diarrhea have been reported in the United States. Gastrointestinal disease caused by V. cholerae is due to production of the cholera toxin. Two types of infection occur; cholera, which is a severe illness presents with profuse, “rice-water” diarrhea, vomiting, tachycardia, dehydration, muscle cramps, restlessness or irritability, and vibriosis, which is characterized by abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, fever and chills which is a self-limited illness of 3-4 days.

Helicobacter pylori BabA Adhesin: A Key Virulence Factor in Gastric Disease

Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacterium that colonizes the human stomach, affecting approximately 50% of the global population. While many infections remain asymptomatic, H. pylori can cause a spectrum of gastric diseases, ranging from chronic gastritis to peptic ulcers and gastric cancer. The bacterium's ability to persist in the harsh gastric environment is largely attributed to its virulence factors, with BabA (blood group antigen-binding adhesin) playing a crucial role in pathogenesis.

What is cagA?

cagA (cytotoxin-associated gene A) is a virulence factor produced by certain strains of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), a bacterium that can colonize the human stomach lining. Not all H. pylori strains carry this gene. When present, cagA significantly increases the bacterium's ability to cause inflammation and damage to the stomach lining.

Duodenal ulcer promoting gene a (dupA) is a virulence factor of H. pylori that is highly associated with duodenal ulcer development and reduced risk of gastric cancer.