A contagem de células brancas do sangue (WBC) mede a quantidade de leucócitos no sangue, essencial para identificar infecções, inflamações e condições médicas como doenças autoimunes e distúrbios sanguíneos. Essas células desempenham um papel crucial no sistema imunológico, sendo divididas em neutrófilos, linfócitos, monócitos, eosinófilos e basófilos. O exame é frequentemente incluído no hemograma completo (CBC) e auxilia no diagnóstico e monitoramento de tratamentos médicos. Valores normais variam entre 3.800 e 10.800 células/µL, dependendo do laboratório, e devem ser interpretados com a orientação de um médico.

As células vermelhas do sangue transportam oxigênio dos pulmões para o resto do corpo. Elas também levam dióxido de carbono de volta aos pulmões para ser exalado. As células vermelhas do sangue (hemácias) são produzidas na medula óssea e contêm hemoglobina, uma proteína que transporta oxigênio para os tecidos do corpo. Essas células também são conhecidas como eritrócitos.

A anemia é uma condição resultante da diminuição no número de hemácias. Contagens elevadas de hemácias são observadas em outras condições, como baixos níveis de oxigênio, uso de certos medicamentos, doenças renais ou superprodução na medula óssea. Se os resultados da contagem de hemácias forem anormais, geralmente são realizados testes adicionais para diagnosticar a causa dos níveis elevados ou reduzidos de células vermelhas do sangue.

Um hemograma completo (HC) mede dois outros componentes das células vermelhas do sangue:

• hemoglobina: proteína que transporta oxigênio

• hematócrito: porcentagem de células vermelhas no sangue

Níveis anormais de células vermelhas do sangue, hemoglobina ou hematócrito podem ser um sinal de anemia, doença cardíaca ou deficiência de ferro no corpo.

CENP-A stands for centromere proteins A.

Centromere antibodies can be directed against a number of centromere proteins (CENP), including CENP-A, -B, and -C, though CENP-B is thought to be the main target.

These antibodies are found in 20% to 40% of patients with SSc and are associated with the lcSSc subtype.

Furthermore, centromere antibodies are included in the 2013 ACR-EULAR classification criteria. However, these antibodies can occur in other connective tissue diseases, including:

- systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),

- primary biliary cholangitis,

- rheumatoid arthritis,

- and Sjögren syndrome.

CENP-B stands for centromere proteins B.

Centromere antibodies can be directed against a number of centromere proteins (CENP), including CENP-A, -B, and -C, though CENP-B is thought to be the main target.

These antibodies are found in 20% to 40% of patients with SSc and are associated with the lcSSc subtype.

Furthermore, centromere antibodies are included in the 2013 ACR-EULAR classification criteria. However, these antibodies can occur in other connective tissue diseases, including:

- systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),

- primary biliary cholangitis,

- rheumatoid arthritis,

- and Sjögren syndrome.

Centromere B Antibody is diagnostic for the form of scleroderma known as CREST (calcinosis, Raynaud's phenomenon, esophageal immotility, sclerodactyly, and telangiectasia).

With a high specificity and a prevalence of 80 to 95%, antibodies against centromeres are pathognomonic for the limited form of progressive systemic sclerosis and can be detected even before the onset of the disease. If the corresponding clinical indication is given, the quantitative determination of antibodies with a monospecific test system, e.g. the Anti-Centromeres ELISA, is recommended.

Function:

Cerebellum is the part of the brain controlling movement and balance. Inside the cerebellar cortex there are large neurons called Purkinje’s cells. The Cerebellar antibodies test measures antibodies against the cerebellum Purkinje’s Cell Antigens.

Antibodies Appear:

- Autism

- Celiac Disease

- Gluten Ataxia

- Paraneoplastic Cerebellar Degeneration Syndrome

- Opsoclonus-Myoclonus Syndrome

Known Cross-Reactions:

gliadin, tumor cells, Milk butyrophilin

Function:

Cerebellum is the part of the brain controlling movement and balance. Inside the cerebellar cortex there are large neurons called Purkinje’s cells. The Cerebellar antibodies test measures antibodies against the cerebellum Purkinje’s Cell Antigens.

Antibodies Appear:

- Autism

- Celiac Disease

- Gluten Ataxia

- Paraneoplastic Cerebellar Degeneration Syndrome

- Opsoclonus-Myoclonus Syndrome

Known Cross-Reactions:

gliadin, tumor cells, Milk butyrophilin

Ceruloplasmin is a copper-containing enzyme that plays a role in the body's iron metabolism. This test measures the amount of ceruloplasmin in the blood.

Ceruloplasmin is a copper-containing enzyme that plays a role in the body's iron metabolism. This test measures the amount of ceruloplasmin in the blood.

Fecal cesium (CS) provides an indication of recent oral exposure to the element, and to a much lesser extent Cs that has been excreted from the body in bile. Naturally occurring Cs is not radioactive and is referred to as stable Cs (Cs133). Cesium is a naturally occurring element found combined with other elements in rocks, soil, and dust in low amounts. Humans may be exposed to Cs at relatively low levels from air and diet. Cesium-chloride is used as a lubricant to facilitate drilling for oil and natural gas. As such Cs may contaminate surface and ground water, and certain crops in close proximity to drilling sites.

Naturally occurring Cs can be found in a stable form. Radioactive Cs is produced by the fission of uranium in fuel elements, usually near nuclear power plants. These are unstable but eventually become stable through radioactive decay. Some Cs can be found in air, water, and soil (and thereby food) based on location near nuclear plants.

Higher levels of vitamin D (25(OH)D3) have been linked to enhanced absorption of radioactive isotopes like cesium. Cs and potassium compete for uptake and cell membrane potential.

Cesium is a naturally occurring element found combined with other elements in rocks, soil, and dust in low amounts. It is used to make atomic clocks, optical glass, and vacuum tubes. Nuclear explosions or the breakdown of uranium in fuel elements can produce radioactive forms of cesium. Exposure to stable or radioactive cesium occurs from ingesting contaminated food or drinking water or breathing contaminated air. In muscle cells, cesium competes with, and displaces, potassium. Such exposures may cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, fatigue, muscle weakness, and palpitations. In severe conditions, it can cause cardiac arrhythmia, coma, and even death. Cesium can cause DNA damage which can affect genomic stability. Altered in genomic stability is a hallmark of aging. Thus, cesium toxicity may accelerate aging owing to its contribution to genomic instability.

Utilization of breath methane levels for SIBO assessment is controversial largely due to a lack of validation related to diagnostic specifics such as timing and magnitude of increase; however, CH4 measurements are increasingly obtained to address other clinical questions. Recent evidence has associated CH4 production with the pathogenesis of common clinical conditions, such as obesity, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and constipation.

Chaetoglobosin A (CHA) is produced by the mold Chaetomium globosum (CG).