Calprotectin is an abundant neutrophil protein. It belongs to the family of S100 calcium binding proteins. Calprotectin is released from activated leukocytes during activation or cell death leading to increased concentrations in plasma, serum, spinal fluid, synovial fluid, urine, saliva or stools. As an antimicrobial, Calprotectin is increased during bacterial infections or inflammation in relevant organs.

Fecal calprotectin is a stable protein found in stool that indicates inflammation in the intestinal lining, commonly used to help distinguish inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) like Crohn’s and ulcerative colitis from non-inflammatory conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). It is also used to monitor disease activity and guide further testing, including the need for endoscopy. Normal levels suggest no active inflammation, while elevated levels point toward possible intestinal inflammation from various causes, including infections, medication effects, or IBD. Testing accuracy depends on proper sample collection and understanding that levels can fluctuate with symptoms and treatments.

Borderline fecal calprotectin results (between 50 and 120 µg/g) can reflect mild or temporary inflammation caused by factors such as recent infections, medications like NSAIDs, or physical exertion. These results are not conclusive for active disease and typically warrant retesting in 4 to 6 weeks to see if levels normalize or rise. If symptoms persist or worsen during this period, further diagnostic tests may be needed to clarify the cause and guide appropriate treatment. Borderline results often reassure that severe inflammation is unlikely but require clinical follow-up.

CaM Kinase II (CaMKII) is an enzyme inside brain cells that plays a major role in neuronal signaling, learning, memory, and neurotransmitter regulation. This test measures how strongly a patient’s serum activates CaMKII compared to a baseline. Elevated activation may indicate immune-mediated effects on neuronal function, as seen in conditions such as PANS, PANDAS, Sydenham chorea, and other neuro-immune disorders.

Campesterol is a critical marker on the Boston Heart Cholesterol Balance® test, providing valuable insights into cholesterol absorption. As a plant sterol, campesterol is absorbed into intestinal cells and serves as an excellent indicator of how much cholesterol is being absorbed from the diet. Elevated levels of campesterol in the bloodstream suggest increased cholesterol absorption, which can influence the effectiveness of certain cholesterol-lowering treatments. By measuring campesterol, alongside other markers like lathosterol and beta-sitosterol, the Boston Heart Cholesterol Balance® test offers a comprehensive assessment of a patient's cholesterol metabolism, enabling healthcare providers to tailor treatment strategies more effectively to manage and reduce cardiovascular disease risk.

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If your levels are moderately elevated:

Moderately elevated levels of campesterol indicate an increased absorption of cholesterol from dietary sources. This can suggest that the body is taking in more cholesterol than it is producing internally. Elevated campesterol levels are significant because they can impact the effectiveness of cholesterol-lowering medications, such as statins, which primarily reduce cholesterol production rather than absorption. In such cases, alternative or additional treatments, like ezetimibe, which specifically targets cholesterol absorption, may be considered. Monitoring campesterol levels provides valuable information for tailoring patient treatment plans to more effectively manage cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

When people worry about eating undercooked chicken, they usually focus on getting sick from salmonella bacteria. But another common type of bacteria called campylobacter can also make you ill if you eat poultry that isn’t fully cooked.

Most Campylobacter infections in industrialized countries are caused by C. jejuni, C. coli, and C. lari with an estimated 1.5 million cases of foodborne illness due to Campylobacter per year in the US. Campylobacter spp. are responsible for approximately 15% of hospitalizations resulting from foodborne infections.

Generally, campylobacteriosis presents as one to three days of fever, vomiting, and headaches followed by three to seven days of watery or bloody diarrhea and may include abdominal pain, cramping, nausea, headache, and/ or muscle pain within 2-5 days of infection.

Contaminated water, pets, food, unpasteurized milk and undercooked poultry, are sources of infection. Use of antibiotics is controversial but may benefit children whom have had symptoms for less than 7 days, and immunocompromised individuals.

C. jejuni is a gram-negative bacterium that causes severe gastroenteritis. Due to C. jejuni’s ability to produce lipoligosaccharides, the bacteria are able to invade intestinal epithelial cells. Beyond the gut wall, C. jejuni has been implicated in disorders such as arthritis and Guillain-Barré syndrome. The severity of these disorders makes C. jejuni an important environmental trigger to assess while working up certain autoimmune patients.