Reduced mean HDL size is associated with cardiovascular disease. Since HDL-C is primarily carried in the circulation by large, lipid-rich HDL particles, the inverse relationship between HDL size and cardiovascular risk can be secondary to those established for plasma levels of HDL particles, HDL-C, and large HDL.

The epidemiological data suggest that the HDL particle number may represent a more relevant therapeutic target as compared to HDL-C.

Very high mean HDL size can be paradoxically associated with elevated cardiovascular risk as observed in the EPIC-Norfolk study after multiple adjustment; this association resembles those reported between cardiovascular disease and very high levels of HDL-C as observed, for example, in the IDEAL study.

HDLs comprise a family of heterogeneous particles that vary by size, density, composition, and functionality. Two distinct HDL subfractions, large buoyant HDL2 and small dense HDL3, might exert differential effects on atherosclerosis and display a promising role in CAD risk prediction.

HDL-2 is part of the larger HDL cholesterol family, which is responsible for removing excess cholesterol from the body and transporting it to the liver. HDL-2 is formed when HDL particles in the blood interact with enzymes and acquire more cholesterol.

The large HDL2 is superior to small HDL3 in the assessment of of coronary artery disease risk.

HDL3-C subfractions are significantly and inversely associated with arterial stiffness, suggesting that HDL subfractions are likely more important than HDL-C in preventing cardiovascular disease.

Broadly, HDL can be distinguished into two subfractions, by density: HDL2 cholesterol (HDL2-C) and HDL3 cholesterol (HDL3-C). HDL3-C is well approximated by the sum of small and medium HDL particles (HDL-P), whereas HDL2-C correlates strongly with large HDL-P. There is no consensus, however, on the functions of HDL2-C and HDL3-C. Whereas some researchers have confirmed that large HDL-Ps have a protective effect on CHD, others recognized that the small, dense, protein-rich HDL-Ps display more potent atheroprotective properties than large, buoyant cholesterol-rich particles.

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) or “good” cholesterol is known to decrease the risk of heart attack and stroke by removing “bad” cholesterol from the blood. It is typically assessed through a lipid profile, which measures “good” cholesterol, “bad” cholesterol, and total cholesterol. A healthcare professional may order a lipid profile when an individual is at an increased risk for heart disease or routinely in healthy adults to monitor cardiovascular health.

HDL-C transports cholesterol from the peripheral tissues and vessel walls to the liver for processing and metabolism into bile salts. Unlike LDL-C, HDL-C is often referred to as “good cholesterol” — it is thought that the process of bringing cholesterol from the peripheral tissue to the liver protects against atherosclerosis.

- Decreased HDL-C levels are considered atherogenic.

- Increased HDL-C levels are considered to protect against atherosclerosis.

The ratio of high density lipoprotein cholesterol/triglycerides is a calculated measure.

Optimal: >0.50

Borderline: 0.25–0.50

Increased Risk: <0.25

HDL-P, a measurement of total HDL particle number concentration, may be a better marker of residual risk than chemically measured high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, the so-called “good” cholesterol) or apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1, the major protein on HDL), ie, there may be a more consistent inverse association between cardiovascular endpoints and HDL-P compared with HDL-C.

Direct quantification of HDL-P concentration by NMR may be useful to refine cardiovascular risk and to evaluate novel HDL-directed therapies. Further studies are needed to clarify the role of HDL-P in clinical practice.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a spiral-shaped bacterium that lives in the lining of the stomach and, in some cases, the upper small intestine. It is one of the most common bacteria found in humans worldwide. While many people carry H. pylori without symptoms, in some individuals it can cause inflammation of the stomach lining (gastritis), ulcers, and, over time, digestive discomfort or nutrient absorption issues.

H. pylori is typically acquired during childhood and can persist throughout life if untreated. It spreads mainly through saliva, food, or water contaminated with the bacteria.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection occurs when H. pylori bacteria infect your stomach. Helicobacter pylori has been evolving with human beings for well over 50,000 years, since they migrated out of Africa. H. pylori colonization has been implicated in a variety of gastroduodenal diseases.

H. pylori, a gram-negative bacterium colonizes the gastrointestinal system, where is interferes with intestinal barrier functions, induces inflammatory responses and can contribute to autoimmunity. Mechanisms of autoimmunity include molecular mimicry, polyclonal activation, epitope spreading, bystander activation and super antigen release. H. pylori has been implicated in disorders of the thyroid, liver, joints and nervous system.

The marker Helicobacter pylori Abs, Serum, detected through a serology test using the immunochromatography method, is a crucial diagnostic tool in identifying infections caused by the Helicobacter pylori bacteria. This bacteria is known to cause various gastrointestinal issues, including peptic ulcers and chronic gastritis, and is also associated with an increased risk of stomach cancer. The test works by detecting specific antibodies in the blood that are produced in response to an H. pylori infection. The immunochromatography method is a simple and rapid technique that involves a test strip, which, when exposed to a blood sample, will show visible lines indicating the presence or absence of these antibodies.

The Helicobacter Pylori Ag, EIA, STOOL test by Quest Diagnostics is a non-invasive diagnostic tool used to detect H. pylori antigens in stool samples. H. pylori is a bacteria linked to peptic ulcers, chronic gastritis, and stomach cancer. The test involves analyzing a stool sample using enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to identify the presence of the bacteria. A positive result indicates an active infection, necessitating antibiotic treatment, while a negative result suggests no current infection. This test is highly sensitive, specific, and suitable for all age groups, providing critical information for early detection and treatment of H. pylori infections.

The urea breath test can be used to aid in the diagnosis of H pylori infection. The test can also be used to assess therapy when it is administered more than a month after completion of therapy.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a type of bacteria. These germs can enter your body and live in your digestive tract. After many years, they can cause sores, called ulcers, in the lining of your stomach or the upper part of your small intestine. 

A hematocrit test (Hct) is a simple blood test that measures the percentage of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells are important because they carry oxygen throughout your body. Test results showing low or high hematocrit levels may be signs of blood disorders or other medical conditions.