Dopamine

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Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that activates the brain’s reward center during pleasurable activities.

Optimal dopamine function is involved in many aspects of health, including memory, movement, motivation, mood, attention, sleep, arousal, learning, and lactation.

What is dopamine and what are its functions?

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter (= chemical messenger) that is produced in large concentrations during pleasurable activities such as when eating sugar or junk food, having sex, or participating in fun and enjoyable down-time activities like spending time in nature or engaging in a favorite hobby. Dopamine is released during these times as a reward for engaging in the activities necessary for survival and reproduction such as eating, drinking, and competing.

Inhibitory versus excitatory neurotransmittor:

Dopamine can act as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, which blocks a signal, or it can act as an neurotransmitter, which stimulates a signal. Whether dopamine acts as an inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmitter depends on which types of receptors are present on its target, which might be a neuron, another cell, tissue, or organ.

Dopamine helps people remember pleasurable experiences. Thus, dopamine plays a role in cravings for food, drugs, and nicotine in susceptible individuals. The sharp increase in dopamine that occurs when using some recreational drugs reinforces the brain to remember the experience and all the routines and cues associated with drug use. An example of this is the urge to smoke while driving or after lunch.

Fight-or-Flight stress response:

Dopamine is one of three catecholamines (the other ones are norepinephrine and epinephrine), neurotransmitters that can function as hormones and are involved in the fight-or-flight stress response.

Although norepinephrine has garnered the lion’s share of attention in regards to the stress response, dopamine also plays a role in how the body responds to stress and it can influence the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. 1,2 

Acute stress generally leads to activation of the dopamine system followed by a subsequent decrease in dopamine that can lead to feelings of unhappiness. 1 Researchers find a significant association between everyday stress and cravings for various substances (e.g. cocaine and amphetamine), which activate the dopamine system. 1

How and where is dopamine produced?

Dopamine contains one amino group connected to an aromatic ring by a two-carbon chain. Like all monoamines, dopamine is derived from aromatic amino acids, specifically the biochemical conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine to dopamine in a series of steps.

Dopamine is then converted to other monoamine neurotransmitters, norepinephrine and then epinephrine.

  • Vitamin B6, iron, niacin, and tetrahydrobiopterin are the nutrient cofactors needed to make dopamine.

Dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine are synthesized in the catecholamine pathway. Phenylalanine is the precursor amino acid for the catecholamines. In a series of biochemical steps, phenylalanine is converted to tyrosine, L-DOPA, dopamine, norepinephrine, and finally epinephrine. Cofactors work with enzymes to synthesize the neurotransmitters and break them down.

  • These include tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), iron, copper, vitamin C, vitamin B6, magnesium, and s-adenosylmethionine (SAMe).

Where do we find dopamine in the body?

Dopamine is made in the adrenal glands, where it modulates aldosterone and serves as a precursor to norepinephrine. 3 It is most famously produced in the CNS in the midbrain, where it is made in the ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra pars compacta. 4 

Neurons from these areas give origin to three main pathways, the nigrostriatal, the mesolimbocortical, and the tuberoinfundibular. As central dopamine does not cross the blood-brain barrier, peripheral dopamine is minimal but does circulate in the blood stream where it affects blood flow as a vasodilator. 19 Dopamine receptors are found in the kidneys, pancreas, lungs, and blood vessels outside of the central nervous system. 5 In fact, renal dopamine regulates sodium extraction and electrolyte balance, and renal dopamine production or dopamine receptor function may support healthy blood pressure. 5

What is dopamine's role in the body?

Dopamine is involved in memory, movement, motivation, mood, attention, sleep, arousal, and learning. It plays a role in the stress response. Dopamine is critical to both the ability to learn and motivation. 6 This is a complicated biological process as target cells must be able to differentiate whether increased dopamine is a signal to learn or move. 6

In addition to its role in cognition, dopamine has a number of important physiological actions elsewhere in the body. These include: 3,7

  • Assisting with removal of sodium and urine from the body.
  • At low concentration, relaxing blood vessels.
  • At high levels, constricting the blood vessels.
  • Protecting the gastrointestinal lining.
  • Slowing gastrointestinal motility.
  • Supporting healthy lymphocyte activity.
  • Supporting heathy insulin production in the pancreas.

Healthy dopamine levels also support neuromotor coordination and movement.

How does dopamine interact with other hormones?

Dopamine works together with other catecholamines. Optimal dopamine levels are required for the production of norepinephrine, as dopamine is a precursor of this catecholamine. Sex and stress hormones can also interact with dopamine. For example, testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol each impact dopamine neurotransmission in the brains of adolescents and adults and this interaction can therefore affect psychiatric health. 17 Low dopamine levels can increase prolactin. Dopamine promotes growth hormone and reduces thyroid stimulating hormone. Insulin resistance, or high insulin levels, can increase dopamine levels.

How Can We Naturally Support Dopamine?

Dopamine Supplements

Amino acid supplements are an option for people who want to support their dopamine levels. The amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine are used by the body to make dopamine.

In addition, L-theanine, an amino acid derived from green tea, may increase dopamine levels in the brain. 

Mucuna pruriens, known also as velvet bean, is a direct source of L-dopa and can be used supplementally to support healthy dopamine levels.

Nutritional supplements containing vitamins and minerals can help to balance levels of dopamine.

The vitamin or mineral cofactors needed to make and remove dopamine from the nervous system include:

  • Copper
  • Iron
  • Magnesium
  • SAMe
  • Tetrahydrobiopterin
  • Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
  • Vitamin B3 (niacin)
  • Vitamin B6
  • Vitamin C

Vitamin D may promote the health of dopaminergic neurons and support optimum dopamine levels. 18

Foods and Dopamine:

Eating foods that boost dopamine levels is another strategy.

These foods include:

Almonds, Apples, Avocadoes, Bananas, Beets, Chocolate, Fava beans, Green leafy vegetables, Green tea, Lima beans, Oatmeal, Oranges, Peas, Pumpkin seeds, Sesame, Tomatoes, Turmeric, Watermelon, Wheat germ

Lifestyle:

Enjoyable and relaxing activities can raise dopamine levels. 

These types of activities include:

Exercise, Massage, Meditation, Participating in a favorite hobby, Playing with a pet, Reading a book, Walking in nature, Yoga

References:

  1. Belujon P, Grace AA. Regulation of dopamine system responsivity and its adaptive and pathological response to stress. Proc Biol Sci. 2015 Apr 22;282(1805):20142516. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2516. PMID: 25788601; PMCID: PMC4389605.
  2. Yong SJ, Tong T, Chew J, Lim WL. Antidepressive Mechanisms of Probiotics and Their Therapeutic Potential. Front Neurosci. 2020 Jan 14;13:1361. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01361. PMID: 32009871; PMCID: PMC6971226.
  3. Cleveland Clinic. Published 2022. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22581-dopamine.
  4. Ranjbar-Slamloo Y, Fazlali Z. Dopamine and Noradrenaline in the Brain; Overlapping or Dissociate Functions? Front Mol Neurosci. 2020 Jan 21;12:334. doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2019.00334. PMID: 32038164; PMCID: PMC6986277.
  5. Drozak J, Bryla J. Dopamina--nie tylko neuroprzekaznik [Dopamine: not just a neurotransmitter]. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2005;59:405-20. Polish. PMID: 16106242.
  6. Berke JD. What does dopamine mean? Nat Neurosci. 2018 Jun;21(6):787-793. doi: 10.1038/s41593-018-0152-y. Epub 2018 May 14. PMID: 29760524; PMCID: PMC6358212.
  7. Strell, C., Sievers, A., Bastian, P. et al. Divergent effects of norepinephrine, dopamine and substance P on the activation, differentiation and effector functions of human cytotoxic T lymphocytes. BMC Immunol 10, 62 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2172-10-62
  8. Belujon P, Grace AA. Dopamine System Dysregulation in Major Depressive Disorders. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017 Dec 1;20(12):1036-1046. doi: 10.1093/ijnp/pyx056. PMID: 29106542; PMCID: PMC5716179.
  9. Cleveland Clinic. Published 2022. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22588-dopamine-deficiency.
  10. Nieoullon A, Coquerel A. Dopamine: a key regulator to adapt action, emotion, motivation and cognition. Curr Opin Neurol. 2003 Dec;16 Suppl 2:S3-9. PMID: 15129844.
  11. Ayano, Getinet. (2016). Dopamine: Receptors, Functions, Synthesis, Pathways, Locations and Mental Disorders: Review of Literatures. Journal of Mental Disorders and Treatment. 2. 10.4172/2471-271X.1000120. 
  12. Dodiya HB, Forsyth CB, Voigt RM, Engen PA, Patel J, Shaikh M, Green SJ, Naqib A, Roy A, Kordower JH, Pahan K, Shannon KM, Keshavarzian A. Chronic stress-induced gut dysfunction exacerbates Parkinson's disease phenotype and pathology in a rotenone-induced mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis. 2020 Feb;135:104352. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.12.012. Epub 2018 Dec 21. PMID: 30579705.
  13. Society for Neuroscience. (2008, August 21). One Sleepless Night Increases Dopamine In The Human Brain. ScienceDaily. Retrieved April 19, 2023 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080819213033.htm
  14. Rinninella E, Raoul P, Cintoni M, Franceschi F, Miggiano GAD, Gasbarrini A, Mele MC. What is the Healthy Gut Microbiota Composition? A Changing Ecosystem across Age, Environment, Diet, and Diseases. Microorganisms. 2019 Jan 10;7(1):14. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms7010014. PMID: 30634578; PMCID: PMC6351938.
  15. Verdolini N, Perugi G, Samalin L, Murru A, Angst J, Azorin JM, Bowden CL, Mosolov S, Young AH, Barbuti M, Guiso G, Popovic D, Vieta E, Pacchiarotti I; BRIDGE-II-Mix Study Group. Aggressiveness in depression: a neglected symptom possibly associated with bipolarity and mixed features. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2017 Oct;136(4):362-372. doi: 10.1111/acps.12777. Epub 2017 Jul 25. PMID: 28741646.
  16. Shaw W. Elevated Urinary Glyphosate and Clostridia Metabolites With Altered Dopamine Metabolism in Triplets With Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Suspected Seizure Disorder: A Case Study. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2017 Feb;16(1):50-57. PMID: 28223908; PMCID: PMC5312745.
  17. Sinclair D, Purves-Tyson TD, Allen KM, Weickert CS. Impacts of stress and sex hormones on dopamine neurotransmission in the adolescent brain. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2014 Apr;231(8):1581-99. doi: 10.1007/s00213-013-3415-z. Epub 2014 Jan 31. PMID: 24481565; PMCID: PMC3967083.
  18. Trinko JR, Land BB, Solecki WB, Wickham RJ, Tellez LA, Maldonado-Aviles J, de Araujo IE, Addy NA, DiLeone RJ. Vitamin D3: A Role in Dopamine Circuit Regulation, Diet-Induced Obesity, and Drug Consumption. eNeuro. 2016 May 19;3(2):ENEURO.0122-15.2016. doi: 10.1523/ENEURO.0122-15.2016. PMID: 27257625; PMCID: PMC4875352.
  19. Missale C, Nash SR, Robinson SW, Jaber M, Caron MG. Dopamine receptors: from structure to function. Physiol Rev. 1998 Jan;78(1):189-225. doi: 10.1152/physrev.1998.78.1.189. PMID: 9457173.

What does it mean if your Dopamine result is too high?

What happens when dopamine is out of balance?

When dopamine levels are balanced, emotions are more stable. Balanced dopamine leads to a sense of well-being and motivation, alertness, and focus. Conversely, dopamine deficiency can lead to feelings of sadness, lack of concentration, and lack of motivation. Both high and low levels of dopamine can lead to problems in the body.

High dopamine levels are associated with: 3,11

  • Cravings
  • Aggressiveness
  • Delusions
  • Difficulty controlling impulses
  • Euphoria
  • Extra energy
  • Weight gain
  • Intense sex drive
  • Problems sleeping

A number of factors can cause dopamine deficiency or excess. These include: 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

  • Stress
  • Not getting enough sleep
  • Deficiency of certain vitamins and amino acids (see supplement section below)
  • Mutations in the COMT or MOA-B genes can interfere with dopamine metabolism
  • Methylation problems
  • Leaky gut
  • Infections with the bacterium Clostridia can lead to dopamine excess

Furthermore, recreational drug use can alter the brain’s reward system by damaging dopamine receptors. As a person uses more and more of a recreational drug, the brain’s reward center becomes less sensitive to the point that only the drug is strong enough to elicit enough dopamine to generate a pleasurable response. Previously pleasurable experiences don’t release enough dopamine for a reward response any longer. Therefore, users have to take more just to get the same response.

What does it mean if your Dopamine result is too low?

What happens when dopamine is out of balance?

When dopamine levels are balanced, emotions are more stable. Balanced dopamine leads to a sense of well-being and motivation, alertness, and focus. Conversely, dopamine deficiency can lead to feelings of sadness, lack of concentration, and lack of motivation. Both high and low levels of dopamine can lead to problems in the body.

Low dopamine is linked to: 8, 9, 10, 11

  • Cravings
  • Inability to concentrate or focus
  • Lack of motivation
  • Low sex drive
  • Memory loss
  • Mood swings
  • Muscle control
  • Tiredness
  • Unhappy feelings

A number of factors can cause dopamine deficiency or excess. These include: 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

  • Stress
  • Not getting enough sleep
  • Deficiency of certain vitamins and amino acids (see supplement section below)
  • Mutations in the COMT or MOA-B genes can interfere with dopamine metabolism
  • Methylation problems
  • Leaky gut
  • Infections with the bacterium Clostridia can lead to dopamine excess

Furthermore, recreational drug use can alter the brain’s reward system by damaging dopamine receptors. As a person uses more and more of a recreational drug, the brain’s reward center becomes less sensitive to the point that only the drug is strong enough to elicit enough dopamine to generate a pleasurable response. Previously pleasurable experiences don’t release enough dopamine for a reward response any longer. Therefore, users have to take more just to get the same response.

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